HANDBOOK    OF 
BUSINESS    ENGLISH 


By 
GEORGE  BURTON  HOTCHKISS,  M.A. 

Professor  of  Business  English  in  New  York  University  School  of  Commerce, 
Accounts  and  Finance 


EDWARD  JONES  KILDUFF,  M.A. 

Instructor  in  Business  English  in  New  York  University  School  of  Commerce, 
Accounts  and  Finance 


1915 

NEW    YORK  UNIVERSITY  BOOK  STORE 

NEW  YORK.  CITY 


COPYRIGHT,    1914 

G.  B.  HOTCHKISS 
E.  J.  KILDUFF 

COPYRIGHT,    1915 

G.  B.  HOTCHKISS 
E.  J.  KILDUFF 


The  William  G.  Hewitt  Prew 
Brooklyn,  New  York 


PREFACE 


This  book  has  been  prepared  in  answer  to  the  current 
demand  for  a  brief  presentation  of  the  principal  rules  of 
good  English  —  grammar,  sentence  structure,  paragraphing, 
punctuation,  capitalization,  letter  writing,  and  report  mak- 
ing —  adapted  to  the  needs  of  business. 

Inasmuch  as  a  large  part  of  present-day  business  is  con- 
ducted by  letters  and  other  written  or  printed  communica- 
tions, a  command  of  good  English  —  and  English  suited  to 
business  purposes  —  is  necessary.  The  majority  of  business 
operations  —  collecting,  answering  complaints,  ordering  goods, 
selling,  etc.  —  are  conducted  in  writing,  and  this  fact  alone 
indicates  the  great  importance  in  business,  of  the  ability  to 
write  correct  and  forcible  English.  Many  business  houses 
have  as  a  motto,  "Put  it  in  writing,"  for  their  experience  has 
shown  that  differences  inevitably  arise  through  verbal  com- 
munications. The  motto,  however,  is  of  little  value  unless 
the  writer  is  able  to  write  well.  And  to  write  well  is  to 
write  so  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  being  misunderstood. 
If  any  disagreement  as  to  the  interpretation  of  a  letter  results 
in  a"  law  suit,  the  courts  usually  decide  that  the  one  who 
caused  the  misunderstanding  is  in  fault. 

Good  business  firms  are  coming  to  realize  more  and  more 
that  the  persons  with  whom  they  do  business,  form  their 
opinion  of  the  firm  from  the  English  used  in  its  letters  and 
advertisements  because,  in  most  instances,  these  are  the  only 
points  of  contact  between  the  firm  and  its  customers.  One 

iii 

343545 


iv  PREFACE 

great  house,  Marshall  Field  and  Company  of  Chicago,  offers 
a  reward  of  $i  to  the  employee  who  first  calls  the  attention 
of  the  Manager's  Office  to  an  error  (other  than  typo- 
graphical) in  any  of  its  advertisements.  Other  instances  of 
business  concerns  which  encourage  the  use  of  good  English 
on  the  part  of  their  employees,  are  the  National  City  Bank, 
the  New  York  Times  (business  department),  and  the  Bur- 
roughs Adding  Machine  Company.  These  and  many  others 
maintain  classes  in  Business  English  for  the  instruction  of 
their  employees. 

The  authors  have  found  that  up  to  the  present  time  no 
handbook  devoted  solely  to  the  exposition  of  the  rules  of 
good  Business  English  has  been  published.  While  many 
excellent  handbooks  of  English  Composition  have  been  pub- 
lished, the  illustrations  of  rules  given  are  not  drawn  from 
the  business  man's  experience,  and  do  not  therefore  come 
home  to  him.  The  examples  in  this  book  are  taken  entirely 
from  letters,  advertisements,  and  other  forms  of  English 
used  in  business. 

In  some  cases,  the  rules  laid  down  are  at  variance  with 
the  accepted  rules  of  literary  composition,  but  the  reader  is 
reminded  that  the  purpose  of  Business  English  differs  from 
that  of  literary  composition.  In  every  instance  the  aim  has 
been  to  present  only  those  rules  which  have  a  direct  bearing 
on  the  getting  of  results.  This  is  the  purpose  of  business 
and  of  every  department  of  business;  or,  to  put  it  more 
frankly,  the  main  reason  a  business  man  should  have  a  com- 
mand of  Business  English  is  that  it  will  help  him  in  his 
business.  The  rules  presented  in  this  book  have  been  formu- 
lated with  a  view  to  their  usefulness  in  aiding  the  business 
man  to  write  effectively. 


PREFACE  v 

It  is  the  belief  of  the  authors  that  this  work  will  serve 
not  only  as  a  manual  of  correct  forms  of  Business  English 
and  a  concise  presentation  of  its-  rules,  but  also  as  supple- 
mentary to  texts  dealing  more  specifically  with  business 
literature,  such  as  letters,  pamphlets,  articles,  reports,  and 
advertisements. 

The  authors  desire  to  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  to 
many  of  their  students  who  have  been  actually  engaged  in 
business,  to  System,  to  Woolley's  Handbook  of  Composition, 
to  A.  H.  Adley,  and  to  Professor  Archibald  Bouton  of 
New  York  University. 

G.  B.  H. 

NEW  YORK  CITY,  E.  J.  K. 

August  29,  1914. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION 

The  reception  given  to  the  first  edition  of  the  Handbook  of 
Business  English  has  been  so  much  more  cordial  than  even 
the  authors  had  expected  that  in  the  second  edition  they  have 
been  encouraged  to  make  extensive  additions.  These,  how- 
ever, have  been  so  arranged  that  they  do  not  interfere  with 
the  original  numbering  of  the  rules.  Consequently,  this  new 
edition  may  be  used  side  by  side  with  the  old  one  without 
confusion.  Except  for  the  addition  of  new  material,  the 
Handbook  has  been  changed  only  by  the  correction  of  minor 
typographical  errors.  The  general  plan  has  sufficiently  proved 
its  usefulness. 

G.  B.  H. 

NEW  YORK  CITY,  E.  J.  K. 

August  14,  1915. 


CONTENTS 


I.    INTRODUCTION  TO  BUSINESS  ENG- 
LISH 

PAGE 

Business  English  Defined I 

Impression 2 

"You"  Attitude 3 

Adaptation  to  the  Reader 4 

Fundamental  Qualities  in  Business  English .  .  7 

Business  English  Style 17 

II.    GRAMMAR— GOOD  USE  IN  THE  SEN- 
TENCE 

Usage  as  a  Factor  in  Business  English 18 

Grammatical  Agreement 19 

Dangling  Modifiers 22 

Clearness  in  Reference 24 

Errors  in  Case  of  Pronouns 26 

Possessives 28 

Adjectives  and  Adverbs 31 

Questions  of  Tense 32 

General  Errors. 37 

III.     SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Length  of  Sentences 39 

Kinds  of  Sentences 40 

The  Principles  of  Construction 41 

Unity  in  the  Sentence 41 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Coherence 44 

Omissions   47 

Coordination  and  Subordination 51 

Parallelism   54 

Emphasis 54 

Euphony 53 

.Revision  after  Dictation 59 

IV.    PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE 

General  Rules 61 

Unity  in  the  Paragraph 66 

Form  Paragraphs 71 

Coherence  in  the  Paragraph 72 

Emphasis  in  the  Paragraph 81 

V.    DICTION 

Elements  of  Correct  Diction 82 

Superfluous  Words 86 

Prepositions 88 

Figures  of  Speech , 88 

Miscellaneous  Faulty  Expressions 90 

VI.    TONE  AND  VARIETY 

The  Tone  of  the  House 115 

Editorial  Manual  for  Correspondents 115 

Style  Adapted  to  the  Reader 117 

Variety 122 

VII.    THE  OUTLINE 

General   Discussion 125 

VIII.     BUSINESS  REPORTS 

Definition  of  a  Business  Report 128 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

Different  Kinds  of  Business  Reports 129 

Arrangement  of  the  Business  Report.  * 129 

An  Example  of  a  Presentation. 132 

An  Example  of  a  Conclusion 132 

Clearness  in  the  Business  Report 134 

Miscellaneous   Points 134 

Accountants'  Reports 135 

IX.    PUNCTUATION    AND     CAPITALIZA- 
TION 

The  Comma 136 

The  Semi-Colon 141 

The  Colon 143 

The  Dash 144 

The  Period 145 

The  Exclamation  Mark 145 

The  Question  Mark 145 

Parenthesis  Marks 145 

Brackets    146 

Quotation  Marks 146 

The  Apostrophe 147 

The   Hyphen 148 

Capitalization 148 

X.     THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A 
LETTER 

Editorial  Manuals  for  Typists 150 

The  Outward  Appearance  of  the.  Letter.  ...  151 

The  Printed  Heading 152  • 

Written  Heading 154 


x  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Inside  Address 157 

The  Salutation 161 

The  Body  of  a  Letter 162 

Examples  of  Display  and  Balance  of  Letters.  163 

Examples  of  Report  Arrangement 164 

Complimentary   Close 165 

The  Signature 166 

Other  Points  about  the  Letter 167 

The  Envelope .  .  169 

Official  Letters 171 

Formal  Official  Letters 171 

Informal  Official  Letters i?2 

XL     THE    COMPOSITION    AS    A    WHOLE 

How  Effective  Writing  May  Be  Secured.  .  .  173 

The  Three  Principles  of  Effective  Writing.  .  173 

The  Principle  of  Unity 174 

The  Efficiency  of  Singleness  of  Impression.  .  176 

The  Principle  of  Coherence 177 

Logical  Arrangement  of  Ideas 177 

The  Use  of  Connection  to -Secure  Smooth- 
ness     178 

Emphasis 1 86 . 

The  Use  of  Position  to  Secure  Emphasis 187 

How  to'  Begin  the  Letter 188 

How  to  End  the  Letter I91 

The  Use  of  Proportion  to  Secure  Emphasis.  .  192 

The  Use  of  Climax  to  Secure  Emphasis.  ...  192 

The  Use  of  Pause  to  Secure  Emphasis 193 

Emphasis  Secured  by  Mechanical  Means.  ...  194 

How  to  Dictate  Answers  to  Letters 196 


DETAILED  SYNOPSIS  OF  CONTENTS 


I.    INTRODUCTION    TO    BUSINESS    ENGLISH 
(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


Business  English  Defined 

(1)  Definition  of  Business 
English 

(2)  Not    a    separate    language 
composed  of  stock  phrases 

(3)  Involves      right     thinking 
and  right  technique 

(4)  Forms  not  fixed;  no  one 
best  form  of  letter 

(5)  Concerned    with     motives 
that  induce  people  to  act 

Impression  versus  Expression 

(6)  Difference    between    Busi- 
ness    English     and     literary 
composition 

(7)  Impression  must  be  made 

(8)  Effective  English  required 
The  "You"  Attitude 

(9)  Meaning  of  "you"  attitude 

(10)  Weakness     of    letters 
caused  by  wrong  viewpoint 

Adaptation  to  the  Reader 
(n)  In  language,  mood,  char- 
acter, and  substance 

(12)  Adaptation    in    language 
to  comprehension  of  reader 

(13)  Adaptation    in    language 
to  direct  purpose  of  letter 


(14)  Adaptation    to    mood   of 
reader 

(15)  Adaptation   to   character 
of  reader 

(16)  Adjustment   to   reader 
through  selection  of  ideas 

(17)  Consider  the  reader  first 
Fundamental  Qualities  in  Busi- 
ness English 

(18)  Desired  qualities;   clear- 
ness,   courtesy,    conciseness, 
correctness,  and  character 

(19)  Reader  is  judge  of  quali- 
ties 

(20a)   Importance  of  clearness 
(2ob)   Definition  of  clearness 
(2oc)   Violation  of  clearness 
(2od)  Definition   of   ambiguity 
(2oe)   Statement    should    have 

only  one  meaning 
(2of)   Definition  of  vagueness 
(20g)   Definition  of  obscurity 
(2oh)   Reader  is  judge  of  clear- 
ness 

(201)   Writer  should  be  critical 
(2ia)   Definition    of    courtesy; 

examples 
(2ib)   Curtness 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF   CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


(2ic)   Curtness  to  women 
(2id)   Courtesy  and  politeness 
(2ie)  Discourteous     treatment 

of  a  letter 
(22a)  Conciseness  is  matter  of 

adaptation  to  reader 
(22b)  Definition  of  conciseness 
(22c)  Two  faults  that  arise 
(22d)  Grammatical  incomplete- 
ness 

(22e)   Curtness  in  tone 
(23a)   Definition  of  correctness 
(23b)  Importance     of    correct 

dress 

(23c)   Definition  of  mechanical 
make-up 


(23d)  Usage    determines    cor- 
rectness of  make-up 
(236)   Incorrect      grammar 

harmful 

(23f)    Usage    determines    cor- 
rectness of  language 
(23g)   Correctness  in  execution 
(24a)   Importance  of  character 
(24b)   Definition  of  character 
(24c)  To  secure  character 

Business  English  Style 

(25a)  Definition  of  style 
(25b)  Versatility  needed 
(26)    Encouragement   of   right 
habits 


II.   GRAMMAR— GOOD   USE   IN   THE   SENTENCE 


Usage  as  a  Factor  in  Business 
English 

(27)  Importance    of    Usage; 
idioms 

(28)  Use    of    Whoever    and 
Whomever 

(29)  Unusual    construction 
Grammatical  Agreement 

(30)  —  (31)  Agreement  of  sub- 
ject and  verb 

(32)  Singular  subjects  joined 
by  or  or  nor 

(33)  Subjects  of  different 
numbers  joined  by  or  or  nor 

(34)  Singular  subject  followed 
by  parenthetical  phrase 

(35)  Singular  form  of  subject 
with  plural  sense 


(36)  Plural    form    of    subject 
with  singular  sense 

(37)  Number  of  collective 
nouns 

(38)  Correct  use  of  compara- 
tive degree 

(39)  Each,    either,    etc.,    with 
singular  number 

Dangling  Modifiers 

(40) — (41)  Participle  as  in- 
troduction word ;  in  absolute 
construction 

(42)  Use  of  gerund  phrase 

(43)  Use  of  elliptical  clause 
Clearness  in  Reference 

(44)  Vague  use  of  pronouns 

(45)  Vague  reference  to  ante- 
cedent 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


(46)  Pronouns  in  indirect  dis- 
course 

(47)  Antecedent  must  precede 

(48)  —  (49)    Avoidance  of  am- 
biguity 

Errors  in  Case  of  Pronouns 

(50)  Use  of  relative 

(51)  Predicate   complement 

(52)  Subject  of  infinitive 

(53)  Complement  of  infinitive 

(54)  Case  of  the  object 

(55)  Case  of  the  appositive 

(56)  Use  of  than  and  as 
Possessives 

(57a)  Forming  possessive  of 
singular  nouns 

(57b)  Of  plural  nouns  ending 
in  s 

(57c)  Of  plural  nouns  not  end- 
ing in  s 

(57d)  Of  compound  noun  or 
noun  phrase 

(S7e)    Of  nouns  in  apposition 

(57f)  Beware  of  doubtful 
meaning 

(57g)  Use  of  double  posses- 
sive 

(S7h)  Possessive  adjectives 

(57i)  Possessive  case  to  show 
real  ownership 

(58)  Possessive  ownership 
used  with  verbal  nouns 


Adjectives  and  Adverbs 

(59)  After  look,  sound,  taste, 
smell,  feel,  etc. 

(60)  Rule    for    adjective    and 
adverb 

Question  of  Tense 

(61)  Tense  of  verb 

(62)  Tense  of  principal  verbs 

(63)  Use  of  perfect  indicative 

(64)  Principal   and    dependent 
verb 

(65)  Expressions  of  fact 

(66)  Use  of  perfect  infinitive; 
rule    for   ought,  need,   must, 
and  should 

(67)  Verb  in  dependent  clause 

(68)  Use  of  present  participle 
(69) — (71)  Use  of  shall  and  will 

(72)  Form  of  shall  and  will  in 
indirect  discourse 

(73)  Shall  and  will  in  condi- 
tional clauses 

(74)  —  (75)  Use  of  should  and 
would 

General  Errors 

(76)  When   and  where  clause 

(77)  Sentence  as  subject  cf  is 
and  was 

(78)  Double  negative 

(79)  Use   of   hardly,   scarcely, 
only,  and  but 

(So)  —  (81)  Use  of  any  and  all 


III.    SENTENCE   STRUCTURE 

Length  I    (83)    Sentence    length;    impor- 

(82)   Sentence  defined  tance  of;  long  and  short 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF   CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


(84)  Character    through    sen- 
tence length 

(85)  Short  sentence  for  sales- 
letters,  etc. 

(86)  Use  of  long  sentence 

(87)  Use  of  long,  smooth  sen- 
tences 

Kinds  of  Sentences 

(88)  Loose,  periodic,  and  bal- 
anced 

(89)  The  loose  sentence 

(90)  The  periodic  sentence 

(91)  The  balanced  sentence 
The  Principles  of  Construction 

(92)  Unity,  coherence,  and  em- 
phasis in  business  letters 

Unity  in  the  Sentence 

(93)  Unity  defined 

(94)  Unlike   statements 

(95)  Connecting   unlike   state- 
ments 

(96)  Sentences    connected   by 
and's  and  but's 

(97)  Faults  of  long  sentences 

(98)  Long   sentences   in   busi- 
ness letters 

(99)  Changing  point  of  view 

(100)  Phrases,  clauses,  and 
sentences  to  be  connected 

(101)  Unrelated  clauses  sepa- 
rated  by    comma    ("Comma 
fault") 

Coherence 

(102)  Requirements  of 

(103)  Position  of  modifiers 


(104)  The  split  infinitive 

(105)  Position  of  adverbs 

(106)  Position  of  correlatives 

(107)  Participle  in  absolute 
construction 

(108)  Loose    arrangement    of 
clauses 

(109)  Long,  ill-connected  sen- 
tences 

(no)   Connections  incorrect 
(in)  Arrangement     of      sen- 
tence elements 

Omissions 

(112)  Needful  words 

(113)  Parts  of  verbs 

(114)  The  verb  be 

(115)  Principal    verbs    should 
be  expressed 

(116)  Expressions  of  compari- 
son 

(117)  Single  modifiers  limiting 
two  sentence  elements 

(118)  Incomplete  members  of 
sentence 

(119)  Subjects  in  first  person 

(120)  A,  an,  and  the  to  be  ex- 
pressed 

(121)  Subordinating    conjunc- 
tions 

(122)  Omission  of  preposition 

(123)  Incomplete  comparison 
Coordination    and    Subordina- 
tion 

(124) — (125)   Use  of  and  and 
but  and  or 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


(126)  Use  of  so,  then,  and  also 

(127)  Two    consecutive    state- 
ments 

(128)  Use  of  adverb  so 

(129)  The   "House-That-Jack- 
Built"  style 

(130)  Clauses     of     complex 
statements 

Parallelism 

(131)  Parallel  construction 
Emphasis 

(132)  Importance  of  emphasis 

(133)  Emphasis  and  arrange- 
ment 

(134)  The  need  of  emphasis 

(135)  Weak  beginnings 

(136)  Weak  endings 

(137)  Emphasis  from  changed 
order 

(138)  Climax;    "Herd's    Prin- 
ciple" 

(139)  How  to  produce  climax 

(140)  Avoid  useless  words 


(141)  Avoid  use  of  there  are 
and  there  is 

(142)  Preposition    at    end    of 
sentence 

(143)  Additional  clause  at  end 
of  sentence 

(144)  Absolute   construction 
weakens  force 

Euphony 

(145)  Sentence   should   have 
pleasing  sound 

(146)  Avoid  words  difficult  to 
pronounce 

(147)  Avoid  repetition 

(148)  Avoid  similar  sounds 
Revision  after  Dictation 

(149)  Secures    effective    sen- 
tences ;  two  important  points  : 
get  the  idea;  revise  for  mis- 
takes 

(150)  Effective  sentences; 
principles    of    unity,    coher- 
ence, and  emphasis 


IV.    PARAGRAPH    STRUCTURE 


(151)  Definition   of  paragraph 

(152)  Purpose  of  paragraph 

(153)  Effect   of  paragraph   on 
eye  and  mind 

(154)  Paragraph   signs* 

(155)  Length  of  paragraph 

(156)  Length,  how  determined 

(157)  Varieties  of  paragraph 

(158)  — (160)   The  short  para- 
graph; value;  definition 


(161)  Variety    of    paragraphs 
pleasing 

(162)  Important    clause    as 
paragraph 

(163)  Paragraphing    in    sales- 
letters 

(164)  Paragraphs  to  effect  ac- 
tion 

(165)  Use  of  long  paragraphs 

(166)  Impression    secured    by 
long  paragraphs 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


(167)  Long     paragraphs     con- 
vince 

Unity  in  the  Paragraph 

(168)  Purpose    of    paragraph- 
ing 

(169)  How    to    secure    good 
paragraphs 

(170)  Value  of  paragraphs  to 
reader 

(171)  Slfould  contain  but  one 
distinct  idea 

(172)  Test  for  unity 

(173)  Functions  of  letters  de- 
termine paragraph 

(174)  Paragraphs  in  complaint 
letter ;  a  model  letter 

(175)  Paragraphs   in   sales- 
letter 

(176)  Paragraphing  a  conver- 
sation 

Form  Paragraphs 

(177)  Purpose  of 

(178)  Principle  of  unity 

(179)  Routine    correspondence 

(180)  Letter  from  form  para- 
graphs 

Coherence  In  the  Paragraph 

(181)  How  secured 

(182)  Close  connection  impor- 
tant 

(183)  Logical     relation     and 
form 


(184)  Use  of  connecting  words 
in  paragraphs 

(185)  Use  of  to  be  sure,  etc. 

(186)  Therefore,     hence,    etc., 
used  to  indicate  relation 

(187)  Use  of  but,  nevertheless, 
etc. 

(188)  Use  of  demonstratives 

(189)  Point  of  view  in  para- 
graph 

(190)  Chronological    order    in 
paragraph 

(191)  Narrative  order 

(192)  Descriptive  order 

(193)  Expository  type 

(194)  Argumentative  type 

(195)  Deductive  order 

(196)  Inductive  order 

(197)  Climactic  order 

(198)  Amplifying  paragraph 

(199)  Topic    sentence    para- 
graph 

(200)  Some  order  needed 

Emphasis  in  the  Paragraph 

(201)  Securing  emphasis 

(202)  Important    positions    in 
paragraphs 

(203)  Use    of    the    short    sen- 
tence 

(204)  Short  passage  made  im- 
portant 


V.   DICTION 


(205)  Importance  of  diction 

(206)  Quality    of   business 


writing 

(207)   Helpful  principles, 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


(208)  Good  usage  defined 

(209)  Reputable  words ;  a. 
Vulgarisms ;     b.     Words     in 
correct    sense ;    c.    Words 
spelled  or  sounding  alike;  d. 
Slang 

(210)  National  words;  mean- 
ing  of  national;   a.    Provin- 
cial words ;  b.  Technical 
words 

(211)  Present  words;  a.   Ob- 
solete   words ;    b.    Newly 
coined  words 

(212)  Use    of    intensive    pro- 
noun 

(213)  They  in  indefinite  sense 

(214)  It  in  indefinite  sense 

(215)  Characterless    expres- 
sions 

(216)  Contractions 

(217)  Long  and  unusual  words 

(218)  Pretentious  expressions 

(219)  —  (220)      Use      specific 
words 


(221)  Words     of     unpleasant 
suggestion 

Superfluous  Words 

(222)  Redundancy,    tautology, 
and  verbosity 

(223)  Redundancy  obscures 

(224)  Tautology  wearies 

(225)  Verbosity  not  effective 

Prepositions 

(226)  Wrong  use   of  preposi- 
tion; illustrative  table 

Figures  of  Speech 

(227)  Use  of 

(228)  Improper  simile  or  meta- 
phor 

(229)  Blending  literal  with 
metaphorical 

(230)  Unpleasant  figures 
Miscellaneous   Faulty   Expres- 
sions 

(231)  Alphabetic  list  of  words 
and    expressions     frequently 
misused 


VI.    TONE   AND   VARIETY 


The  Tone  of  the  House 

(232)  In  letters  express  char- 
acter of  house 

(233)  How  tone  is  secured 

(234)  Dignified  letters,  ex- 
ample from  bond  house 

Editorial    Manual    for    Corre- 
spondents 

(235)  Letters  of  distinction 

(236)  Personality    in    letters ; 


how  uniformity  is  secured 

(237)  Rules   for   correspon- 
dents 

(238)  Handbook    as    editorial 
manual 

(239)  Attitude  of  writer;  how 
determined 

Style  Adapted  to  the  Reader 

(240)  Securing  results  through 
tone 


xviii         DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses 

(241)  Sales-letters  to  ladies 

(242)  Example  of  wrong  tone 

(243)  Advertisements  for  edu- 
cated classes ;  use  of  French 

(244)  Letters  to  farmers 

(245)  Sporting    goods    adver- 
tisements 

(246)  Uniform  tone  to  be 
maintained 

(247)  Positive  beginnings 


Refer  to  Paragraphs) 

(248)  Pleasing  variety  in  sen- 
tence 

(249)  Monotony  fatal 

(250)  Violation  of  variety;  a. 
Frequent  compound  sen- 
tences ;    b.    Use    of    absolute 
phrases;    c.    Use    of    so;    d. 
Use   of  after   this,   there  is, 
now,  etc. ;  e.  Frequent  use  of 
therefore,  however,  etc. 


VII.    THE 
General  Discussions 

(251)  Importance  of  outline 

(252)  Outline  is  a  coordinated 
arrangement ;  three  essentials 

(253)  Unity 

(254)  Simple  construction 

(255)  Proportion  to  be  main- 
tained 


OUTLINE 

(256)  Five  parts  of  outline:  I. 
The  subject;  2.  The  Point  of 
view ;     3.     Main     topics ;     4. 
Subdivisions ;     5.     Clearness, 
unity,  simplicity,  and  propor- 
tion 

(257)  Outline  of  sales  report 

(258)  Revision  of  outline 


VIII.   BUSINESS   REPORTS 


Definition  of  a  Business  Report 

(259)  Contents 

(260)  Purpose 

(261)  Maker  and  receiver 

(262)  Various  uses 

(263)  The  reporter 
Different  Kinds  of  Reports 

(264)  Varied  nature  of  reports 

(265)  Personal  and  impersonal 
forms 

(266)  Importance  of  contents 
Arrangement  of  a  Business  Re- 
port 

(267) — (268)    Arrangement 
important 


(269)   Items  properly  displayed 
(270) — (271)    Fact's    separated 
from  recommendations 

(272)  Recommendations  simple 
and  definite 

(273)  Nature    of   report,    how 
determined 

(274)  Titles  to  be  inclusive 

(275)  Beginning    and    end    of 
report ;  example  of  presenta- 
tion and  conclusion 

Clearness  in  the  Business  Re- 
port 

(276)  Clearness     and    conve- 
nience essential 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF   CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


(277)  Clearness,  how  obtained 

(278)  Simple  language  and  use 
of  diagrams 

Miscellaneous  Points 

(279)  Common   errors   in   re- 
ports 


(280)  The  necessity  of  an  out- 
line 

(281)  Proportion 

(282)  Points  for  checking 

(283)  Accountants'  reports 


IX.    PUNCTUATION   AND    CAPITALIZATION 


The  Comma 

(284)  Shortest  stop 

(285)  After    each    word    of    a 
series 

(286)  Sets  off  direct  address 

(287)  Sets  off  absolute  phrases 

(288)  Sets  off  intermediate  ex- 
pressions 

(289)  Sets  off  appositives 

(290)  Indicates  an  ellipsis 

(291)  Separates     geographical 
names 

(292)  Separates  two  numbers 

(293)  Sets  off  a  quotation 

(294)  Between  independent 
clauses 

(295)  Sets   off  a  dependent 
clause 

(296)  Sets    off    "not"    before 
antithesis 

(297)  Separates    sentence    ele- 
ments 

(298)  Separates  two  adjectives 

(299)  Separates  name  and  title 

(300)  Between   parts    of   a 
series 

(301)  Between    repeated    or 
similar  words,  etc. 


(302)  Divides    numbers    into 
groups 

(303)  Sets  off  a  non-restrictive 
clause 

(304)  Omitted  before  restric- 
tive clause 

(305)  Sets  off  certain  adverbs 

(306)  Separates  similar  words 

(307)  Separates     a     series    of 
three  or  more  words 

(308)  Omitted  before  a  num- 
ber 

(309)  Omitted    after    a    short 
inversion 

(310)  Omitted  before  that 

(311)  The  comma  fault 

The  Semi-Colon 

(312)  Longer  separation  than 
comma 

(313)  — (314)     Separates    parts 
of  a  compound  sentence 

(315)  Setting    off    conjunctive 
adverbs 

(316)  Used    with    commas    in 
compound  sentences 

(317)  When    comma    is    not 
enough 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses 

The  Colon 

(318)  A  mark  of  equality 

(319)  Before    certain    expres- 
sions 

(320)  After  introductory  word, 
phrase,  etc. 

(321)  After   formal   salutation 

(322)  To   separate   hours   and 
minutes 

The  Dash 

(323)  Indicates  abrupt  change 

(324)  Sudden  break  in  speech 

(325)  Takes  place  of  comma 

(326)  Takes    place    of    paren- 
thesis 

(327)  Before    a    word    which 
sums  up 

(328)  To  connect  dates 

(329)  Between  short  sentences 
The  Period 

(330)  Mark  of  finality 

(331)  At  end  of  sentence 

(332)  After  abbreviations 
The  Exclamation  Mark 

(333)  Indicates  feeling 

(334)  Expresses  irony 
The  Question  Mark 

(335)  After  direct  questions 
Parenthesis  Marks 

(336)  Enclose  independent  ele- 
ments 


Refer  to  Paragraphs) 

Brackets 

(337)  Enclose     explanatory 
statements 

Quotation  Marks 

(338)  Enclose  direct  quotations 

(339)  Use  of  single  quotations 

(340)  When  omitted 

(341)  —  (342)  Where  placed 

(343)  Omission  of  punctuation 

The  Apostrophe 

(344)  Indicates  omissions 

(345)  Forms  possessives 

(346)  Not  used  with  possessive 
adjectives 

The  Hyphen 

(347)  At  end  of  line 

(348)  Divides  compound  words 

(349)  Used  with  to-day,  etc. 

(350)  Words    divided    at    end 
of  syllable 

(351)  Avoid    double    punctua- 
tion 

Capitalisation 

(352)  Proper   names    and    ad- 
jectives 

(353)  Important  words 

(354)  First  word  of  a  sentence 

(355)  Titles 

(356)  Sections  of  country 

(357)  Days  of  week 

(358)  Official  titles 


X.    THE   MECHANICAL   MAKE-UP    OF   A   LETTER 


Editorial  Manuals  for  Typists 
(359)   Standardized  Letters 


(360)   Manual     of 
business  house 


rules     for 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


The  Outward  Appearance  of  a 
Letter 

(361 )  Impression  on  the  reader 

(362)  Quality  and  size  of  paper 

(363)  Sales-letter  matters 

(364)  Six  parts  in  make-up  of 
letter 

The  Printed  Heading 

(365)  Quality  of  business  let- 
ter-head 

(366)  Script  heading 

(367)  Color  of  headings 
Written  Headings 

(368)  Forms  of  headings 

(369)  Contents  of  heading 

(370)  Abbreviations 

(371)  Street  number 

(372)  When  spelled  out 

(373)  Content   of   date 

(374)  Dates  not  written  out  in 
full 

(375)  Abbreviations    for    date 
numbers 

(376)  Use  more  than  one  line 
Inside  Address 

(377)  Personal  form 

(378)  Contents  of 

(379)  The  word  City 

(380)  Titles 

(381)  Use  of  "esquire" 

(382)  Miss  as  title 

(383)  Messrs,  as  title 

(384)  Right  use  of  Messrs. 

(385)  Initial  titles 

(386)  When   presenting   a   re- 
port 


(387)  In  official  letter 

(388)  The  street  address 

The  Salutation 

(389)  Use  of  salutation 

(390)  Where  written 

(391)  — (393)    Forms    to    be 
avoided 

(394)  Odd  cases 

(395)  Use  of  name  alone 

(396)  Abbreviated  forms 

(397)  Punctuation 

(398)  Official  letters 
The  Body  of  a  Letter 

(399)  Amount  of  material 

(400)  Indention  of  paragraph 

(401)  Handwritten  letter 

(402)  Standardized  form 
Complimentary  Close 

(403)  Beginning  of 

(404)  —  (405)  Correct  forms 

(406)  Forms  to  be  avoided 

(407)  Correct  punctuation 

The  Signature 

(408)  Position  of 

(409)  The  firm  name 

(410)  Typing  the  signature 

(411)  Omission  of  title 

(412)  Signature  of  married 
woman 

(413)  Signature  of  unmarried 
woman 

Other  Points  about  the  Letter 

(414)  Postscript 

(415)  Discourteous  expressions 


xxii          DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses 

(416)  Identity  of  dictator  and 
transcriber 

(417)  Enclosures 

(418)  Written  on  one  side  only 

(419)  The  last  sheet 

(420)  Folding 

(421)  Securing  personal  atten- 
tion 

The  Envelope 

(422)  Correct  size 

(423)  The  address 

(424)  Placing  of  address 

(425)  Division  of  address 

(426)  Personal  attention  indi- 
cated 


Refer  to  Paragraphs) 

(427)  Envelope  should  be  neat 
Official  Letters 

(428)  When  used 

(429)  Stationery  used 

(430)  Small  letter-head  used 

(431)  Classes  of  official  letters 
Formal  Official  Letters 

(432)  To  whom  addressed 

(433)  Mechanical   form   of 

(434)  The  salutation 

(435)  Body  of  letter 
Informal  Official  Letters 

(436)  When  used 

(437)  The  inside  address 

(438)  Salutation  informal 


XL   THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE 


How  Effective  Writing  May  be 
Secured 

(439)  Constructive     side     of 
writing 

(440)  Writer  must  know  prin- 
ciples  of  construction 

The  Three  Principles  of  Effec- 
tive Writing 

(441)  Principles    are    natural 
laws 

The  Principle  of  Unity 

(442)  Singleness  of  impression 

(443)  Concentration     on"    one 
idea 

(444)  Selection    a    matter    of 
judgment 

(445)  Writer  must  know  pur- 
pose and  technique 


(446)  Idea  must  be  complete 

(447)  Non-essentials    must   be 
excluded 

The  Efficiency  of  Singleness  of 
Impression 

(448)  Trouble   caused  by   un- 
unified  letter 

(449)  Letter     should     contain 
only  one  main  idea 

(450)  Test  ^compositions    for 
unity 

The  Principle  of  Coherence 

(451)  Principle     of     arrange- 
ment and  connection 

(452)  Some     definite     order 
necessary 

(453)  Progress    from    reader's 
to  writer's  viewpoint 


DETAILED  SYNOPSIS  OF  CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


The  Use  of  Connection  to  Se- 
cure Smoothness 

(454)  Methods  of  general  con- 
nection 

(455)  Methods  of  specific  con- 
nection 

(456)  Use  of  various  kinds  of 
connectives 

(457)  Use  of  repetition 

(458)  Use  of  transitional  sen- 
tence 

(459)  Use  of  topic  sentence 

(460)  Use  of  transitional  para- 
graph 

(461)  Connotative  coherence 

(462)  Example  of  coherence 

(463)  Coherence     secured     by 
interest 

(464)  Active  coherence 

(465)  First   paragraph    should 
secure  interest 

(466)  Paragraphs    should    be- 
gin interestingly 

Emphasis 

(467)  Arrangement    to    secure 
impression 

(468)  Emphasis     used     only 
when  needed 

(469)  Use     of     position     and 
proportion 

The  Use  of  Position  to  Secure 
Emphasis 

(470)  Importance  of  beginning 
and  ending 

(471)  Two  important  places  in 
letter 


(472)  Misuse     of     important 
positions 

How  to  Begin  the  Letter 

(473)  Beginning  is   important 

(474)  Reader's     viewpoint     at 
start 

(475)  Example    of    complaint 
letter 

(476)  Purpose  of  letter  in  first 
paragraph 

(477)  Acknowledgment  of  re- 
ceipt of  letter 

(478)  How  to  weave  in  date 

(479)  Other    methods    of    ac- 
knowledgment 

(480)  Beginning  of  sales-letter 

How  to  End  the  Letter 

(481)  Ending    should    not    be 
weak 

(482)  Sliding-off     ending     is 
weak 

(483)  Participial  ending  is  in- 
correct 

(484)  Make  definite  statement 

The  Use  of  Proportion  to  Se- 
cure Emphasis 

(485)  Important   ideas   should 
have  room 

The  Use  of  Climax  to  Secure 
Emphasis 

(486)  Definition  ot  climax 

(487)  Danger  of  anti-climax 

(488)  Arrangement    of    argu- 
ments 


DETAILED    SYNOPSIS    OF    CONTENTS 


(Numbers  in  Parentheses  Refer  to  Paragraphs) 


The   Use  of  Pause   to  Secure 
Emphasis 

(489)  Definition   of  pause 

(490)  Use  of  Dash 

(491)  Use  of  paragraphing 


(492)  Mechanical  emphasis 

How    to    Dictate   Answers    to 
Letters 

(493)  Aids  to  correct  dictation 


Handbook  of  Business  English 

I.     INTRODUCTION  TO  BUSINESS  ENGLISH 

Business  English  Defined 

1.  Business  English  composition,  as  treated  in  this  book, 
is  confined  to  the  art  of  employing  written  English  to  arouse 
in  others  such  feelings  and  ideas  as  shall  cause  action  that 
results  in  business  profit,  and  to  do  so  with  the  least  waste 
of  time,  effort,  and  money.     It  includes  all  written  messages 
used  in  commercial  transactions  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
a  profitable  response  by  impressing  the  reader. 

2.  Business  English  is  not  a  separate  language  in  the 
sense  of  being  composed  of  words  and  phrases  peculiar  to 
business  transactions.     The  dictator  who  has  at  the  tip  of 
his  tongue  such  stock  expressions  as  uYours  of  the  I5th  inst. 
to  hand,"  "Pursuant  to  yours  of  even  date/'  and  so  on,  is 
not  necessarily  a  writer  of  good  Business  English.     These 
expressions  are   not   so   efficient   as  simple  expressions   that 
mean  the  same  thing;  they  injure  rather  than  aid.     They 
are  weak  because  the  average  man  never  writes  them,  and 
certainly  the  average  man  never  speaks  them.    They  destroy 
the  personality  of  the  letter. 

3.  Like  any  other  branch  of  business  composition,  Busi- 
ness English  involves  two  processes,  right  thinking  and  right 
technique.     The  writer  must  think  clearly,  know  the  solu- 
tion of  his  business  problem,   and   express  and   impress  his 
ideas  precisely. 

1 


2         INTRODUCTION    TO    BUSINESS    ENGLISH 

4.  The    forms    in    whicn    business    communications   are 
written  are  not  fixed,  but  are  of  necessity  elastic  in  order  to 
lend  themselves  to  a  variety  of  uses.    There  is  no  such  thing 
as  a  best  form  of  collection  letter  or  a  best  form  of  letter 
answering  a  complaint.     Each  case  is  individual  because  each 
reader  is  individual. 

5.  Business  English  has  to  do  not  merely  with  composi- 
tion, but  also  with  the  motives  which  induce  people  to  act. 
In   other   words,    the   writer   must    comprehend    the   whole 
psychological  problem  involved  in  any  given  case,  and  must 
make  use  of  his  knowledge  in  the  expression  of  his  thoughts. 

Impression  versus  Expression 

6.  The  main  difference  between  literary  composition  and 
Business  English  is  the  purpose.     In  most  forms  of  literary 
composition  the  writer  endeavors  to  express  his  thoughts  with 
clearness  and  precision  for  the  purpose  of  giving  information 
or  entertaining  the  reader ;  in  Business  English,  however,  the 
purpose  is  profits.     Since  Business  English  must  produce  a 
profit,  it  must  not  merely  please  or  instruct  the  reader;  it 
must  cause  him  to  act — it  must  make  him  respond.     The 
test,  therefore,  of  the  business  letter  is  this:    does  it  make 
the  reader  do  what  you  want  him  to  do?    Does  it  bring  the 
response  you  wish? 

7.  In  literary  composition  the  writer  usually  considers 
only   the  expression   of   his  ideas;   in   Business   English   the 
writer  must  consider  not  only  the  expression  of  his  ideas  but 
also  the  impression  upon  the  mind  of  the  reader.     He  must 
make  such  an  impression  upon  the  reader's  mind  as  shall 
arouse  him  to  the  desired  course  of  action.    This  impression 


IMPRESSION    VERSUS    EXPRESSION  3 

can  be  secured  only  by  conveying  the  writer's  own  idea  to 
the  reader  in  such  a  way  that  the  latter  shall  accept  the 
former's  point  of  view. 

8.  Business  men  are  not  purists:  they  do  not  always  de- 
mand nicety  in  language.     It  is  not  always  necessary  that 
polished  diction  and  well-rounded  sentences  be  used.     It  is 
not  fatal  if  a  business  message  should  violate  a  rule  or  con- 
vention now  and  then.     Contractions,  slang,  colloquialisms 
are  allowed  in  many  cases,  and  at  times  are  more  effective 
than  pure  English  would  be.     All  this  is  so  because  the 
important  and,  for  that  matter,  the  only  real  purpose  of  a 
business  communication  is  the  transmission  of  a  message.     If 
the  reader  understands  the  message  just  as  the  writer  wishes 
it  understood  and  acts  just  as  the  writer  wishes  him  to  act, 
there  certainly  can  be  no  cause  for  complaint.     At  the  same 
time  it  can  never  be  said   that  the  message  will  be  fully 
understood  unless   the  expression  is  clear,   the  punctuation 
correct,  and  choice  of  words  accurate.     Hence  it  is  necessary 
that  certain  rules  of  form  be  observed,  for  they  will  aid  in 
getting  the  right  result. 

The  "You"  Attitude 

9.  The  "You"  attitude  means  that  the  words  I,  we,  my, 
mine,  ours,  and  so  on,  are  subordinated  as  much  as  possible. 
It  means  that  the  writer  shall  have  a  sincere  regard  for  the 
reader  and  shall  take  his  viewpoint.     No  other  appeal  is  so 
direct,  so  effective,  as  that  which  is  summed  up  in  the  words 
you,  your  business,  your  profits,  your  welfare.     Keep  before 
the  reader  his  interests,  not  yours.     Show  the  reader  how 
your  proposition  will  benefit  him.     Look  at  the  problem 


4         INTRODUCTION     TO     BUSINESS     ENGLISH 

through  the  eyes  of  the  reader.  Remember  that  of  the 
three  factors  involved  in  a  message  (the  sender;  the  subject, 
or  idea;  and  the  reader)  the  third,  the  reader,  is  the  most 
important. 

10.  The  weakness  of  most  letters  is  due  not  to  ungram- 
matical  sentences  or  to  poor  style,  but  to  the  wrong  view- 
point.    To  overcome  this  weakness  two  things  will  help: 
first,  know  your  product  or  proposition;  second,  know  the 
reader  you  are  trying  to  reach.     The  examples  given  below 
show  how  prominent  should  be  the  "You"  attitude. 

Wrong:  We  beg  to  announce  that  we  are  putting  out  on 
the  market  our  new  bathrobe.  We  should  like  to  sell  you 
some  of  these  because  we  know  that  our  bathrobes  are  the 
best  on  the  market. 

Right:  You  can  sell  even  better  bathrobes  at  the  price  you 
have  been  charging  your  customers,  and  thus  further  de- 
velop your  trade  by  the  most  effective  of  all  advertising 
— the  recommendation  of  man  to  man. 

Or 

You  can  make  a  wider  margin  of  profit  on  every  sale 
by  putting  prices  a  peg  higher — and  still  give  your  cus- 
tomers gloriously  good  value  for  their  money. 

Adaptation  to  the  Reader 

11.  In  order  to  make  the  desired  impression  upon  the 
reader's  mind,  it  is  essential  that  some  adjustment  should  be 
made  if  the  message  is  to  be  conveyed.     Business  English 
composition  should  be  adapted  to  the  reader  in  language, 
mood,  character,  and  substance.    The  language  must  be  such 
as  the  reader  would  use  or  understand,  and  such  as  is  best 


ADAPTATION    TO    THE    READER  5 

suited  for  the  occasion.  The  mood  or  tone  must  be  such 
as  will  make  the  best  appeal  to  the  reader  and  will  best 
aid  in  getting  him  to  do  what  the  writer  wants.  The  char- 
acter must  be  of  the  kind  to  make  the  deepest  impression  on 
him.  The  arguments  used  must  be  those  that  appeal  to  him. 

12.  The  adaptation  in  language  consists,  first,  in  the  use 
of  such  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs  as  are  surely  within 
the  comprehension   of   the   reader.      In   answering  a  letter 
written  on  a  mere  scrap  of  paper  and  showing  illiteracy,  the 
writer  should  use  simple  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs. 

13.  Adaptation  in  language  also  means  that  the  language 
used  should  be  well  suited  to  the  direct  purpose  of  the  letter. 
If  the  letter,  for  example,  is  a  sales  letter  to  a  business  man, 
the  language  used  should  be  of  the  kind  that  is  easily  read; 
i.  e.,  short  sentences,  words,  and  paragraphs.     Again,  since 
the  purpose  of  a  letter  is  to  incite  action,  the  words,  sen- 
tences, and  paragraphs  should  be  short,  sharp,  and  incisive. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  writer  is  answering  a  letter  of 
complaint  written  by  an  angry  man,  he  should  use  the  kind 
of  language  which  would  tend,  from  its  mere  type,  to  soothe 
and  allay  the  anger  of  the  complainant.     He  would  use  long, 
smooth  sentences  and  paragraphs,  for  they  tend  to  soothe. 

14.  Adaptation  in  mood  means  that  the  writer  should 
adapt  himself  to  the  mood  of  the  reader.     If  the  reader  has 
made   a   complaint,   the  writer  should   put   himself   into   a 
friendly,  sincere,  and  sympathetic  attitude  before  he  commits 
his  answer  to  paper.     If  the  reader  is  indifferent  to  a  sales 
proposition,  the  writer  must  put  himself  into  an  enthusiastic 
mood  which  will  carry  him  away.     If  the  reader  is  antago- 
nistic, the  writer  must  be  tactful  and  diplomatic.    The  object 


6         INTRODUCTION    TO    BUSINESS    ENGLISH 

of  the  writer  is  to  create  a  co-operative  and  sympathetic  state 
of  mind  and  not  to  stir  up  opposition  or  resentment. 

15.  Adaptation   to  the  character  or  personality  of   the 
reader  means  that  the  language  and  tone  of  the  composition 
must  not  clash  with  the  known  characteristics  of  the  reader. 
In  most  cases  the  writer  is  able  to  learn  of  the  character  of 
the  reader  from  his  letter;  he  may  know  it  from  acquaint- 
ance with  him,   from  his  business  position,   his  nationality, 
credit  rating,  and  from  many  other  factors.     If  the  writer 
finds  by  analysis  that  the  reader  is  conservative  in  character, 
he  should  adapt  the  tone  of  his  letter  to  the  character  of  the 
reader  and  make  the  character  or  tone  of  his  letter  con- 
servative by  expressing  his  ideas  in  non-colloquial,  formal, 
and  dignified  language.    If  the  writer  finds  by  analysis,  how- 
ever, that  the  reader  is  progressive,  live,  and  up-to-date,  a 
short,  brisk  appeal  will  be  more  likely  to  make  a  good  im- 
pression.    Sales   letters   sent   to   ladies  should  be   polished, 
courteous,  and  non-colloquial  in  character.     Letters  sent  out 
by  firms  like  banking  and  bond  houses  should  be  dignified 
and  conservative. 

16.  Adaptation  or  adjustment  in  substance  means  that 
from  the  ideas  at  the  disposal  of  the  writer,  those  should 
be  selected  that  are  closest  to  the  reader's  experience  and 
interests.      The   writer    should    sufficiently    understand    the 
reader  to  know  that  of  the  arguments,  selling  points,  appeals, 
ideas,  and  so  on,  certain  ones  will  most  directly  reach  the 
reader.     The  writer,  therefore,  should  direct  his  persuasion 
at  the  interests  that  govern  the  reader  and  so  fit  his  appeals 
to  these  specific  interests. 

17.  The  fault  of  failing  to  look  at  the  problem  through 


QUALITIES    IN    BUSINESS    ENGLISH  7 

the  eyes  of  the  reader  is  common  in  business.  The  ordinary 
seller  tries  to  force  his  ideas  as  to  why  the  buyer  should  buy, 
instead  of  trying  to  find  the  advantage  that  will  result  to 
the  benefit  of  the  buyer.  A  man  looking  for  a  position  puts 
his  reasons  and  his  ambitions  forward,  instead  of  showing 
to  the  prospective  employer  how  well  he  would  fit  in  with 
the  scheme  of  work  of  the  prospective  employer.  "Consider 
the  reader  first"  should  be  the  motto  of  the  letter-writer. 

Fundamental  Qualities  in  Business  English 

18.  A  careful   examination  of  the  correspondence  and 
other  forms  of  composition,  such  as  pamphlets,  circulars,  and 
so  on,  sent  out  by  the  best  business  houses,  has  revealed  the 
fact  that  certain  qualities  are  common  to  all  forms  of  good 
Business  English.    These  qualities  are  five  in  number :  Clear- 
ness,  Courtesy,   Conciseness,   Correctness,   and  Character. 

19.  Of  all  these  qualities  or  characteristics  of  Business 
English,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  quality  of  correct- 
ness, the  reader  and  not  the  writer  is  the  judge.     This  fact 
can  be  easily  understood  from  an  explanation  of  the  matter 
of  clearness.    In  many  cases  the  writer  thinks  that  his  writing 
is  clear;  but  the  reader  is  unable  to  understand  it.     It  is  not 
what   the  writer   thinks   about  his   message   that   counts   so 
much  as  what  the  reader  thinks.     Letters  that  the  writer 
intended   to  be   courteous  may  appear   discourteous   to   the 
reader. 

20a.  The  first  quality  of  importance  in  a  business  com- 
position is  that  of  clearness,  for  the  purpose  of  the  composi- 
tion is  to  convey  a  certain  message  to  the  reader.  Business 
men  realize  the  importance  of  clearness,  for  they  have  had 


8          INTRODUCTION   TO   BUSINESS   ENGLISH 

it  brought  home  to  them  so  often  in  matters  of  disagreements 
and  misunderstandings.  It  is  obvious  that,  if  a  business 
composition  is  not  clear  and  does  not  convey  its  idea  to  the 
reader  on  the  first  honest  reading,  it  is  likely  to  be  a  financial 
loss,  for  few  readers  will  take  the  time  to  study  out  what 
the  writer  had  in  mind  when  he  wrote  it.  Clearness  is  ob- 
tained by  clear  thinking  and  by  simple  and  precise  expression. 

20b.  A  composition  is  said  to  have  the  quality  of  clear- 
ness when  the  ideas  are  so  expressed  that  the  ordinary  reader 
need  exert  little  mental  effort  to  understand  them  and 
cannot  misunderstand  them.  Clearness,  in  other  words, 
recognizes  the  law  of  economizing  the  reader's  attention. 
Herbert  Spencer's  idea  of  this  law  may  be  expressed  as 
follows:  Everyone  at  a  given  moment  has  a  certain  amount 
of  power  of  attention.  Accordingly,  whatever  part  of  this 
power  is  used  upon  the  form  of  the  message  must  be  deducted 
from  the  total;  the  remainder  is  left  to  comprehend  the 
message  itself.  Those  word  combinations  therefore  are 
best  which  require  the  least  energy  for  the  comprehension 
of  their  meaning. 

20c.  The  quality  of  clearness  is  violated  in  three  com- 
mon ways:  By  ambiguity,  by  vagueness,  and  by  obscurity. 

20cl.  Ambiguity  means  that  a  statement  admits  of  more 
than  one  meaning.  As  a  result  of  this  double  meaning  the 
reader  is  very  likely  to  take  a  wrong  understanding  of  the 
idea.  (See  Rules  43-49-) 

20e.  The  writer  should  take  care  that  his  statements 
can  be  understood  in  but  one  way.  He  should  first  think 
clearly  and  then  write  precisely. 


QUALITIES    IN    BUSINESS    ENGLISH  9 

20f.  Vagueness  means  that  the  statement  is  not  definite 
in  meaning.  Although  not  meaningless,  it  is  likely  not  to 
convey  much  meaning.  The  reader  gets  a  meaning,  but  it 
is  not  the  writer's  entire  and  exact  meaning.  Circumstances 
determine  vagueness  to  a  great  extent.  For  example,  if  a 
large  wholesaler  in  sugar  were  to  receive  a  letter  from  one 
of  his  regular  customers  saying  "What  has  become  of  our 
'sugars'?"  the  message  would  be  said  to  be  vague,  for  in  this 
particular  case  the  customer  might  have  four  or  five  orders 
in  the  process  of  being  filled,  and  the  wholesaler  would  not 
know  exactly  what  was  meant  by  "Our  sugars."  Again,  if 
in  answer  to  a  letter  that  asks  what  time  an  order  would  be 
shipped  the  following  were  sent,  it  would  be  said  to  be 
vague:  "We  think  that  perhaps  we  may  be  able  to  ship 
your  order  soon."  Vagueness  is  caused  by  the  use  of  inexact 
and  unspecific  words  and  expressions.  This  fault  may  be 
avoided  by  making  the  thought  exact  and  specific,  and  using 
icxact  and  specific  words  to  express  it. 

20g.  Obscurity  means  that  a  statement  is  not  readily 
understood,  although  by  careful  rereading  and  study  the 
reader  may  finally  understand  what  the  writer  intended  to 
say.  Few  compositions  in  Business  English,  however,  are 
usually  considered  important  enough  for  a  second  reading. 
In  fact,  many  readers  have  neither  the  time  nor  the  disposi- 
tion to  read  a  message. 

Example:  In  reply  to  your  esteemed  favor  of  the  25th  inst. 
relative  to  Parcels  Post  charges  on  pick  up  orders,  beg  to 
state,  we  will,  temporarily  until  we  can  determine  just 
what  readjustment  of  your  stock  is  necessary  to  take  care 
of  your  requirements  unless  we  are  compelled  before  on 


10         INTRODUCTION    TO    BUSINESS    ENGLISH 

account  of  the  expense  to  discontinue,  arrange  to  stand  all 
such  Parcels  Post  expense  on  shipments  made  direct  to 
your  shop. 

20h.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that  sometimes  a  message  that 
is  obscure  to  the  average  reader  is  clear  to  those  for  whom 
it  is  intended.  A  report  from  one  engineer  to  another 
engineer  on  the  construction  of  a  bridge  would  not  perhaps 
be  very  clear  to  the  lay  reader  because  of  the  use  of  technical 
expressions,  but  it  would  be  clear  to  an  engineer.  The 
reader  is  judge  of  the  quality  of  clearness. 

The  cylinder  mold  is  made  up  of  brass  spiders  evenly 
spaced  upon  a  steel  shaft.  Grooves  are  milled  on  the  cir- 
cumference of  these  spiders  to  hold  brass  rods.  The  end 
spiders  are  a  little  larger,  and  holes  are  drilled  in  them  to 
hold  the  ends  of  the  rods.  Grooves  are  then  cut  in  the  rods, 
and  copper  wire  is  wound  around.  This  winding  is  done  in 
the  lathe,  and  the  wires  are  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  apart. 

20i.  Clearness,  'therefore,  exists  if  the  combination  of 
words  used  to  express  the  thought  carries  to  the  reader  defi- 
nitely and  unmistakably  the  thought  of  the  writer.  Clear- 
ness is  secured  by  constantly  working  for  it.  The  writer 
should  ask  himself  "Just  what  do  I  mean?"  "Do  these 
words  say  just  what  I  mean?"  "Do  they  say  anything  I  do 
not  mean?"  The  writer  should  be  critical  of  his  own  work^ 

21  a.  Courtesy  means  that  the  writer  should  have  a  due: 
regard  for  the  point  of  view  of  the  reader.  The  writer 
must  acquire  the  ability  to  put  himself  in  the  reader's  place 
and  to  view  his  own  letter  through  the  reader's  eyes.  Curt- 
ness,  snappishness,  and  impoliteness  should  be  avoided.  The 
"You"  attitude  should  be  used.  The  writer  sjjould  be 


QUALITIES    IN    BUSINESS    ENGLISH  11 

courteous  and  show  that  he  has  a  sincere  regard  for  his 
reader. 

Discourteous : 

Dear  Sir: 

We  have  not  heard  from  you  in  regard  to  our  last  order. 
What's  the  matter  with  you  anyway?  Don't  you  think  we 
are  in  a  hurry  for  it? 

Very  truly  yours, 

Better  : 

Dear  Sir: 

We  have  as  yet  received  no  word  from  you  in  regard 
to  our  order  of  January  24.    As  we  are  in  a  hurry  for  this 
order,   won't  you  kindly  look  up  the  matter  and  let  us 
know  about  it  as  soon  as  possible? 
Very  truly  yours, 

21b.  Curtness  is  a  milder  form  of  discourtesy,  but  it 
is  harmful  to  good  business.  It  is  usually  brought  about 
unconsciously  by  the  reader's  striving  for  conciseness  of 
expression. 

Dear  Sir: 

Yours  of  the  I5th  to  hand.    We  do  not  make  suits  to  order. 
Yours,  etc. 

In  this  particular  example  the  discourtesy  can  be  changed 
to  courtesy  by  a  more  adequate  consideration  of  the  letter 
and  by  the  use  of  several  polite  phrases.- 

Dear  Sir: 

Thank  you  for  your  letter  of  January  15  in  which  you 
ask  us  as  to  whether  we  make  suits  to  order.  We  wish  to 
say  that  our  whole  business  is  concerned  with  ready-made 
clothes. 


12        INTRODUCTION     TO    BUSINESS    ENGLISH 

We  number  among  our  customers  many  who  formerly 
thought  nothing  was  so  good  as  tailor-made  clothes.  Now 
they  are  getting  more  satisfaction  from  our  clothes — and  at 
a  lower  cost. 

Won't  you  drop  in  to  see  us? 

21  c.  Letters  to  women — who  for  the  most  part  are 
unused  to  the  short,  snappy  letters  of  business — should  be 
carefully  watched  for  the  fault  of  curtness.  Women  very 
easily  take  offense  at  any  abruptness  in  tone. 

2 Id.  Courtesy  does  not,  as  many  consider  it,  consist 
only  of  polite  terms  and  phrases.  Many  a  letter  that  has 
polite  phrases  scattered  throughout  is  discourteous.  Polite- 
ness is  merely  a  veneer.  Courtesy  goes  deeper.  It  is  a  sincere 
regard  for  the  other  man — the  reader.  Formal  phrases  of 
politeness  can  in  no  way  take  the  place  of  true  courtesy. 
Indeed,  such  an  expression  as  "Thanking  you  in  advance"  is 
actually  discourteous,  as  it  discounts  the  value  of  the  favor 
asked.  "Dictated  but  not  signed"  also  savors  of  discourtesy. 
Do  not  use  such  expressions. 

21e.  A  violation  of  courtesy  may  arise  from  the  dis- 
courteous treatment  given  to  a  letter.  Do  not,  for  example, 
scribble  the  answer  on  the  original  letter  and  mail  it  back. 
It  suggests  that  you  considered  the  letter  so  unimportant 
that  you  didn't  care  to  keep  it. 

22a.  The  quality  of  conciseness  is  a  good  example  of 
the  fact  that  the  reader  is  the  judge  of  the  qualities  that 
a  letter  possesses  and  that  all  qualities  are  relative.  A  letter 
that  is  considered  concise  by  the  business  man  might  be 
considered  curt  by  a  woman  and  might  be  considered  lacking 


QUALITIES    IN    BUSINESS    ENGLISH  13 

in  details  by  a  farmer.    True  conciseness  in  Business  English, 
therefore,  is  a  matter  of  adaptation  to  the  reader. 

22b.  This  much  about  conciseness  is  certain:  the 
thoughts  and  ideas  of  the  writer  should  be  expressed  in  as 
few  words  as  will  convey  the  message  unmistakably  to  the 
reader.  Conciseness  means  that  the  ideas  are  expressed 
briefly,  but  still  with  grammatical  completeness. 

22c.  Two  common  faults  arise  from  the  attempt  to 
secure  conciseness :  ( I )  grammatical  incompleteness  of  sen- 
tences, and  (2)  curtness  or  snappishness  in  tone. 

22d.  Grammatical  incompleteness  arises  when  the 
writer,  in  a  mistaken  attempt  to  secure  brevity  of  expression, 
omits  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  a  part  of  the  verb,  or  some 
other  important  element  that  is  needed  to  complete  the  gram- 
matical construction  of  the  sentence.  (See  Rules  112-123). 
Such  omissions  cause  ambiguity,  obscurity,  and  hence,  instead 
of  hastening  the  comprehension  of  the  thought,  impede  it. 
In  telegrams,  cablegrams,  and  the  like,  the  message  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  fewest  words  compatible  with  clearness. 

22e.  The  other  fault  brought  about  by  a  mistaken  idea 
of  conciseness  is  that  of  curtness  or  snappishness  of  tone. 
The  message  is  expressed  in  as  few  words  as  possible  to  con- 
vey the  message,  but  in  certain  cases  the  reader  receives  a 
disagreeable  impression  from  the  tone  of  the  message.  (See 
Rule  2ib.) 

23a.  The  quality  of  correctness  is  present  if  the  me- 
chanical form  of  the  composition  is  in  accord  with  the  rules 
of  mechanical  make-up ;  if  the  language  is  in  accord  with  the 
usage  of  good  modern  writers;  and  if  the  technique — the 


14          INTRODUCTION   TO   BUSINESS    ENGLISH 

execution  of  the  composition — is  correct  from  the  business 
point  of  view. 

23b.  At  the  first  meeting,  a  man  is  judged  by  his  per- 
sonal appearance — his  clothes,  his  looks,  and  so  on — and  by 
his  speech.  Many  of  these  snap  judgments  based  on  a  man's 
appearance  have  been  erroneous — but  it  takes  much  to 
change  a  first  impression — especially  if  that  first  impression 
be  a  poor  one.  So  it  is  that  the  person  or  concern  presenting 
a  business  message  to  one  reader  or  a  hundred  thousand 
readers  cannot  afford  to  allow  the  mechanical  make-up — the 
dress — of  the  message  to  make  a  poor  impression.  The  ap- 
pearance of  the  composition  must  be  good.  Correct  dress 
commands  a  certain  amount  of  respect  and  attention. 

23c.  The  mechanical  make-up  deals  with  externals; 
that  is,  the  margins,  the  typing,  the  placing  of  the  matter 
on  the  page,  and  so  on — whether  it  be  a  letter,  an  adver- 
tisement, a  pamphlet,  report,  or  other  form  of  business 
composition. 

23d.  Correctness  of  the  dress  of  a  letter  is  a  matter 
determined  by  usage — present  day  usage.  Because  of  its  long 
and  constant  use,  the  letter  has  become  more  or  less  con- 
ventionalized as  to  form,  but  certain  parts  of  the  letter  have 
changed.  The  sliding  off,  participial  ending  of  sixty  years 
ago  was  as  follows: 

"Assuring  you  of  our  great  pleasure  in  having  been  given 
this  opportunity  to  serve  you,  allow  us  to  subscribe  ourselves 
as,  Your  faithful  and  humble  servants,  John  Jones  &  Com- 
pany." 


QUALITIES   IN   BUSINESS   ENGLISH  15 

Such  a  complimentary  close  would  now  be  judged  incorrect 
because  of  its  not  being  in  conformity  with  the  present  day 
custom  of  the  best  business  houses.  To  be  in  correct  me- 
chanical make-up,  the  letter  must  conform  with  present  day 
usage.  What  this  usage  is  and  by  whom  it  is  decided  are 
questions  that  naturally  arise.  Usage,  it  may  be  said,  is 
the  practice  of  the  majority  of  the  best  authorities.  Usage, 
however,  like  fashion,  is  constantly  changing.  What  was 
correct  yesterday  may  not  be  correct  to-day;  what  is  correct 
to-day  may  not  be  correct  to-morrow.  Not  many  years  ago 
the  script  letterhead  was  in  vogue;  nowadays  simple  Roman 
type  is  preferred. 

23e.  A  man  is  judged  by  his  speech.  If  that  be  crude 
and  ungrammatical  the  speaker  stands  condemned.  Faults 
in  speech  are  by  no  means  so  glaring  as  faults  in  writing, 
for  in  the  latter  case  faults  are  in  a  lasting  form  so  that  all 
may  see  and  laugh.  A  business  man  cannot  afford  to  be 
misjudged — he  cannot  afford  to  send  out  letters  that  have 
errors  in  grammar,  punctuation,  or  spelling.  If  he  does 
send  out  such  letters,  he  lowers  himself  and  his  proposition 
in  the  estimation  of  the  men  with  whom  he  deals. 

23f.  Correct  grammar  passes  unnoticed,  as  it  should, 
for  it  is  expected.  Bad  grammar,  since  it  attracts  attention 
to  itself,  distracts  the  reader  from  the  message  and  gives  him 
an  unfavorable  impression  both  of  the  writer  and  of  the 
proposition.  Correctness  in  language  is  a  matter  of  usage — 
the  practice  of  the  majority  of  the  best  writers. 

23g.  The  mechanical  make-up  and  the  language  are 
external  matters.  The  execution  of  the  composition  deals 
with  internals.  Correctness  in  executing  a  letter  or  adver- 
tisement is  a  matter  that  concerns  the  correct  solution  of  the 


16        INTRODUCTION   TO    BUSINESS    ENGLISH 

business  problem  involved  (this,  of  course,  involves  the  use 
of  correct  facts  and  ideas)  ;  in  other  words,  correctness  of 
execution  is  a  matter  of  internals — of  the  ideas  that  are 
used.  A  business  composition,  therefore,  is  correct  in  exe- 
cution if  it  conforms  in  construction  with  the  technique  that 
has  been  found  to  be  the  best  for  results  and  if  it  is  accurate 
in  its  ideas  and  facts. 

24a.  In  importance  second  only  to  the  quality  of  clear- 
ness is  the  quality  of  character,  which  is  far  rarer  than 
clearness.  Character  means  that  the  composition  is  dis- 
tinctive either  because  of  the  writer's  personality  or  because 
of  a  certain  tone,  style,  or  quality  which  the  writer  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously  puts  into  his  composition.  Since 
nine  out  of  ten  business  compositions  are  characterless,  the 
composition  that  has  character  secures  more  than  ordinary 
attention.  The  reader  imparts  his  character  to  the  writing 
as  much  as  he  imparts  his  personality  to  a  person  with  whom 
he  talks. 

24b.  Character,  however,  does  not  mean  eccentricity  or 
oddity  in  expression.  It  is  not  to  be  secured  by  posing. 
Rather  is  it  the  personality  of  the  writer  injected  into  his 
writing  and  adapted  to  the  reader.  Such  a  writer  expresses 
his  idea  not  by  means  of  mechanical  expressions  but  by 
means  of  individual  expressions. 

24c.  If  the  correspondent  wants  to  secure  character  for 
his  compositions  he  must  first  break  away  from  the  habit 
of  using  the  wornout  phrases  that  are  common  in  our  com- 
mercial correspondence.  His  next  step  should  be  to  express 
his  ideas  and  thoughts  in  a  natural  way — simple,  direct,  and 
exact.  He  should  write  iust  as  he  thinks. 


BUSINESS   ENGLISH    STYLE  17 

Business  English  Style 

25a.  In  literary  circles  the  conception  of  style  is  that  it 
is  the  individuality  of  the  writer  as  shown  in  his  expression. 
Buffon's  famous  definition  "le  style  est  de  rhomme  meme" 
(style  is  of  the  man  himself)  is  the  accepted  one  generally. 
Style,  in  Business  English,  does  not  mean  simply  the  expres- 
sion of  the  writer's  individuality.  By  far  a  better  definition 
for  style  in  Business  English  is:  Style  is  the  writer  in  the 
right  relation  to  his  subject  and  his  reader. 

25b.  The  writer  of  Business  English  should  forget  about 
his  personal  style,  about  himself,  and  should  think  of  those 
readers  that  he  is  desirous  of  reaching.  He  should  find  the 
ideas  that  will  appeal  to  them,  the  language  that  they  can 
understand,  and  the  action  that  they  can  be  forced  to  take. 
The  less  style  in  the  sense  of  literary  style  that  the  writer 
has  the  better.  Certainly  he  should  have  no  mannerisms. 
He  should  have  sufficient  versatility  and  adaptability  to  suit 
his  message  to  the  reader,  the  subject,  and  the  concern — 
and  forget  himself. 

26.  Good  business  writing  is  simply  the  encourage- 
ment of  right  habits — the  fixing  of  good  habits  until  they 
become  a  part  of  one's  nature  and  are  exercised  automatically. 


II.    GRAMMAR— GOOD  USE  IN  THE  SENTENCE 

Usage  as  a  Factor  in  Business  English 

27.  The  usage  of  good  writers  is  stronger  than  formal 
grammatical  rules,  for  any  language  is  the  product,  not  of 
grammatical  rules,  but  of  usage.     Usage  has  given  to  our 
language  its  idioms,  the  construction  of  which,  for  the  most 
part,  cannot  be  justified  by  rules  of  grammar.     Several  ex- 
pressions of  idiomatic  usage  are:    "I  had  rather,"  "He  had 
better,"  "In  this  connection." 

28.  In  the  sentence,  "We  shall  give  the  order  to  whom- 
ever we  consider  is  the  best  prepared  to  fill  it,"  the  word 
whomever,  according  to  grammatical  rule  (Rule  50)   is  in- 
correctly used  for  whoever ',  because  the  subject  of  the  verb 
is  prepared  in   the   relative  clause,   must  be  put   into  the 
nominative  case.     It  is,  however,  so  natural  to  follow  the 
preposition   (in  this  case  to)   with  the  objective  case  that  a 
writer  will  naturally  use  whomever.     The  use  of  whoever, 
although  grammatically  correct,  is  unnatural,  and  sounds  so 
unnatural  that  the  reader's  attention  is  directed  to  it.     As  a 
result,  the  reader  is  more  likely  to  stop  to  find  out  why  the 
writer  uses  whoever  instead  of  whomever  after  to,  than  he 
is  to  continue  to  read  and  grasp  the  thought.    In  other  words, 
the  writer  by  means  of  his  correct  use  of  English  has  dis- 
tracted the  reader's  mind  from  the  important  thing,  which 
is  not  the  method  of  expression,  but  the  thought. 

29.  In  the  sentence,  "Neither  he  nor  I  are  connected 
with  this  plan,"  the  verb  are  is  incorrectly  used,  according 

18 


GRAMMATICAL  AGREEMENT  19 

to  grammar  (Rule  33).  The  sentence  should  read  "Neither 
he  nor  I  am  connected  with  this  plan ;"  but  if  it  were  written 
in  that  way  the  reader  would  be  struck  by  this  odd  construc- 
tion, would  pause,  and  would  be  likely  to  be  distracted  from 
the  thought.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  avoid  any  unusual 
grammatical  construction,  even  if  correct,  that  will  call 
attention  to  its  grammar  and  thereby  distract  the  reader.  In 
such  cases,  the  writer  may  use  a  different  form  to  express  the 
same  idea,  as,  "He  is  not  connected  with  this  plan ;  nor  am 
I."  [Any  rule  in  this  book  that  might  cause  by  its  applica- 
tion such  distraction  is  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*).]  The 
writer  should  write  so  that  the  reader  will  never  notice  the 
words  or  the  grammatical  construction  used,  but  will  see 
only  the  idea  that  is  being  expressed.  The  medium  of  the 
communication  should  never  attract  attention  to  itself. 

Grammatical  Agreement 

30.  A  verb  should  agree  with  its  subject,  not  with  its 
predicate  noun. 

Wrong:   The  only  asset  of  the  estate  are  twenty-two  shares 

of  New  York  Central. 
Right:    The  only  asset  of  the  estate  is  twenty-two  shares 

of  New  York  Central. 
Wrong:    Safety,  marketability,  and  income  is  the  test  for 

bond  investment. 
Right:    Safety,  marketability,  and  income  are  the  tests  for 

bond  investment. 

31.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number. 

Wrong:    Our  latest  shipment  of  automobiles  are  on  ex- 
hibition at  our  show-rooms. 


20      GRAMMAR— GOOD    USE    IN    THE    SENTENCE 

(It  is  a  common  error  to  make  the  verb  agree  with  the 
noun  intervening  between  it  and  the  subject,  instead  of 
with  the  subject.) 

Right:  Our  latest  shipment  of  automobiles  is  on  exhibition 
at  our  show-rooms. 

Wrong:    He  don't  want  to  receive  any  more  supplies. 

Right:   He  doesn't  want  to  receive  any  more  supplies. 

^2.     Two  or  more  singular  subjects  joined  by  or  or  nor 
take  a  singular  verb. 

Wrong:  Neither  the  interest  nor  the  security  interest  me. 
Right:  Neither  the  interest  nor  the  security  interests  me. 
Wrong:  Either  the  shipping  clerk  or  the  railroad  are  at 

fault. 
Right :     Either  the  shipping  clerk  or  the  railroad  is  at  fault. 

*33.  Two  or  more  subjects  of  different  number  joined 
by  or  or  nor  take  a  verb  of  the  number  of  the  last  subject. 

Wrong:    Either  they  or  he  were  interested  in  this, concern. 
Right:    Either  they  or  he  was  interested  in  this  concern. 
Wrong:    Neither  he  nor  I  are  very  good  accountants. 
^L  Right:    Neither  he  nor  I  am  a  very  good  accountant. 

34.  A  singular  subject,  although  followed  by  a  paren- 
thetical phrase,  takes  a  singular  verb,  because  words  joined  to 
the  subject  by  with,  together  with,  in  addition  to,  or  as 
well  as,  are  not  a  part  of  the  grammatical  subject. 

Wrong:   Your  regular  order,  as  well  as  your  special  orders 

of  March  8,  have  been  shipped. 
Right:    Your  regular  order,  as  well  as  your  special  orders 

of  March  8,  has  been  shipped. 
Wrong:    A  letter,  together  with  a  catalogue,  were  mailed 

to  you. 
*  See  Rule  29. 


GRAMMATICAL   AGREEMENT  21 

Right:  A  letter,  together  with  a  catalogue,  was  mailed 
to  you. 

35.  When  the  subject,  though  singular  in  form  is  plural 
in  sense,  the  verb  should  be  plural. 

Wrong:    Half  of  the  men  has  resigned. 
Right:    Half  of  the  men  have  resigned. 

36.  When  the  subject,  though  plural  in  form,  is  singular 
in  sense,  the  verb  should  be  singular. 

Wrong:    Ten  thousand  dollars  are  a  large  sum  to  us. 
Right:    Ten  thousand   dollars  is  a  large  sum  to  us. 

37.  A  collective  noun,  when  it  refers  to  the  collection 
as  a  whole,  is  singular  in  sense,   and  therefore  requires  a 
singular  verb.     When  it  refers  to  the  individual  persons  or 
things  of  the  collection,  it  is  plural  and  requires  a  plural  verb. 

Wrong:  The  committee  as  a  whole  have  approved  the 
purchase. 

Right:  The  committee  as  a  whole  has  approved  the  pur- 
chase. 

Wrong:  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  have  de- 
cided against  the  railroads. 

Right:  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  has  decided 
against  the  railroads. 

Wrong:    The  committee  has  disagreed  among  itself. 

Right:    The  committee  have   disagreed   among  themselves. 

38.  With  two  objects  use  the  comparative  degree;  with 
more  than  two  use  the  superlative. 

Wrong:    This  is  the  best  of  the  two  machines. 
Right:    This  is  the  better  of  the  two  machines, 


22      GRAMMAR—  GOOD    USE    IN    THE    SENTENCE 

Wrong:    Of  our  five  offers,  the  second  is  the  better. 
Right:    Of  our  five  offers,  the  second  is  the  best. 


Words  like  each,  either,  someone,  somebody,  any- 
one, everyone,  etc.,  demand  the  use  of  singular  verbs  and 
pronouns. 

Wrong:    Everyone  in  the   office   was   asked   their  opinion. 
Right:    Everyone  in  the  office  was  asked  his  opinion. 
Wrong:     Each    one    of    my    five    recommendations    were 

granted. 
Right:    Each  one  of  my  five  recommendations  was  granted. 


Dangling  Modifiers 
^40.     A  participle  should  not  introduce  a  sentence  unless 


.V.     . 

it  logically  modifies  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 


Bad:   Replying  to  your  letter,  the  matter  has  been  arranged 

satisfactorily. 
Good :    Replying  to  your  letter,  we  should  like  to  say  that 

the  matter  has  been  arranged  satisfactorily. 
Bad:   Fitted  to  your  measure,  you  will  find  perfect  comfort 

in  this  suit. 

Good:   Fitted  to  your  measure,  this  suit  will  give  you  per- 
fect comfort. 
Bad:    Having  shipped  you  the  motor  boat  on  March  25, 

it  should  now  be  in  your  hands. 

.    Good:    Having  shipped  you  the  motor  boat  on  March  25, 
I       we  think  that  it  should  now  be  in  your  hands. 
41.     Do  not  use  a  participle  in  the  absolute  construction. 
It  does  not  express  the  true  relation  between  the  subordinate 
idea  and  the  main  idea. 

Bad:    This  cement  having  been  tested  out  for  three  years, 

we  are  backing  it  with  our  guarantee. 

*  See  Rule  29. 


DANGLING   MODIFIERS  23 

Good:    As  this  cement  has  been  tested  out  for  three  years, 

we  are  backing  it  with  our  guarantee. 
Bad:    He  declined  the  offer,  it  being  too  low. 
Good :    As  the  offer  was  too  low,  he  declined  it. 
Bad :    I   being   unfamiliar   with  this   special  branch  of   the 

work,  the  firm  had  to  call  in  outside  assistance. 
Good:    Since  I  was  unfamiliar  with  this  special  branch  of 

the  work,  the  firm  had  to  call  in  outside  assistance. 

42.  Do  not  begin  a  sentence  or  clause  with  a  gerund 
phrase  unless  it  logically  modifies  the  subject  of  the  sentence 
or  clause. 

Wrong:    After  telephoning  to  me  that  I  should  go  ahead 

with  his  order,  I  find  his  cancelation  on  my  desk. 
Right:    After  he  had  telephoned  to  me  that  I   should  go 

ahead  with  his  order,  I  find  his  cancelation  on  my  desk. 
Wrong:     In   conferring  with  our   manager  about  the  new 

district,  he  informed  me  of  his  plans. 
Right:    At  a  conference  with  our  manager  about  the  new 

district,  I  was  informed  by  him  of  his  plans. 

43.  Do  not  use  an  elliptical  clause  if  there  is  any  danger 
of  ambiguity.     (An  elliptical  clause  is  a  clause  from  which 
the  subject  and  predicate  are  omitted :  e.  g.,  when  ordering 
for  when  you  are  ordering.) 

Wrong:  When  four  years  old,  you  will  be  getting  a  com- 
fortable income  from  the  orchard. 

Right:  When  the  orchard  is  four  years  old,  you  will  be 
getting  a  comfortable  income  from  it. 

Wrong:  Although  contained  in  tin.  you  will  not  find  the 
"tinny"  taste  in  these  soups. 

Right:  Although  these  soups  are  contained  in  tin,  never- 
theless, you  will  not  find  that  they  have  the  "tinny"  taste. 


24      GRAMMAR— GOOD    USE    IN    THE    SENTENCE 
Clearness  in  Reference 

44.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  pronoun,  or  a  pronominal  expres- 
sion, that  seems  to  refer  to  some  word  or  phrase  that  has  not 
been  expressed. 

Wrong:    Do  not  take  the  life  out  of  your  rugs  by  beating 

them.    Let  us  do  it  in  a  more  scientific  way  with  our  steam 

process. 
Right:    Do  not  take  the  life  out  of  your  rugs  by  beating 

them.    Let  us  clean  them  in  a  more  scientific  way  with  our 

steam  process. 

Wrong:  Without  doubt,  our  new  manager  is  strict,  but  it 
has  not  dominated  him  as  it  did  the  old  manager. 

Right:  Without  doubt,  the  new  manager  is  strict,  but  strict- 
ness  has  not  dominated  him  as  it  did  the  old  manager. 

Note:  In  the  sentence  marked  "wrong"  the  pronoun  it 
is  without  an  antecedent,  because  a  pronoun  may  not  refer 
grammatically  to  an  adjective. 

Wrong:     Your    check    for   $117.85   was    not    received   until 

Feb.   4,   which   means   that   we   shall  be   unable  to   allow 

you  the  discount. 
Right:     Your    check    of    $117.85    was    not    received    until 

Feb.  4.    This  fact  means  that  we  shall  be  unable  to  allow 

you  the  discount. 


j 


45.     Avoid  the  use  of  a  pronoun,  or  a  pronominal  expres- 
sion, the  antecedent  of  which  is  not  immediately  seen. 

Wrong:  The  members  of  the  firm  have  again  taken  up  the 
matter  with  the  two  watchmen,  for  they  now  think  that 
they  know  how  the  safe  was  tampered  with. 

Right:  The  members  of  the  firm  have  again  taken  up  the 
matter  with  the  two  watchmen,  who  think  that  they  know 
how  the  safe  was  tampered  with. 


CLEARNESS  IN  REFERENCE          25 

Wrong:  The  water  is  maintained  at  a  certain  temperature, 
which  continually  changes. 

Right:  The  water,  which  continually  changes,  is  main- 
tained at  a  certain  temperature. 

'46.     Be  particularly  careful  of  the  use  of  pronouns  in 
indirect  discourse. 

Not  clear:     Gordon  wrote  to  Mr.  Hains  that  he  had  re- 
ceived his  order. 
Clear:     Gordon  wrote  to  Mr.  Hains  that  he  had  received 

Mr.  Hains'  order. 

Clear:  Gordon  wrote  to  Mr.  Hains,  "I  have  received  your 
order." 

47.  Do  not  use  the  pronoun  until  the  antecedent  has 
appeared,  unless  the 'antecedent  immediately  follows  and  is 
unmistakable. 

Wrong:  Sales  letters  are  an  important  part  of  our  sell- 
ing campaign,  but  though  they  have  steadily  watched, 
and  though  they  have  studied  hard,  sales  letter  writers 
have  been  unable  to  lay  down  hard  and  fast  rules  for  the 
success  of  this  work. 
Note:  Tn  the  above  passage  "They"  is  entirely  vague 

until  near  the  end  of  the  passage. 

48.  Various  ways  of  ridding  the  sentence  of  the  am- 
biguity due  to  pronouns  are:   The  substitution  of  equivalent 
nouns  and  the  unequivocal  "the  former"  and  "the  latter"; 
the  use  of  direct  quotation  in  place  of  the  indirect;  and  the 
repetition  of  a  word  or  phrase.     Do  not  be  afraid,  ever,  to 
repeat  the  word  to  which  the  pronoun  refers. 

49.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  pronoun  in  referring  to  a  noun 
subordinate  in  thought  or  syntax;  either  repeat  the  noun  or 
recast  the  sentence. 


20      GRAMMAR— GOOD    USE    IN    THE    SENTENCE 

Wrong:    In  F.  B.  Scott  and  Company's  new  catalogue  for 

1914  they  give  some  remarkably  low  figures  for  hydraulic 

engines. 
Right:  F.  B.  Scott  and  Company,  in  their  new  catalogue 

for  1914,  give  some  remarkably  low  figures  for  hydraulic 

engines. 
Right:  F.  B.  Scott  and  Company's  new  catalogue  for  1914 

gives  some  remarkably  low  figures  for  hydraulic  engines. 

Errors  in  Case  of  Pronouns. 

*50.  Be  careful  of  the  case  of  the  relative  pronoun  in 
the  relative  clause.  Remember  that  its  case  is  determined 
by  its  relation  to  the  verb  in  the  clause. 

Wrong:     The  manager,  whom  I  knew  could  help  me,  did 

not  listen  to  me. 
Right:      The    manager,    who    I    knew    could    help    me,    did 

not  listen  to  me. 

Note:   "Who"  is  the  subject   of  "could  help;"  "I  knew" 
is  merely  a  parenthetical  expression. 
Wrong:    Whom  do  you  think  I  am? 
Right:    Who  do  you  think  I  anr? 

Note:  "Who"  is  a  predicate  nominative  in  the  same  case 
as  "I." 

Wrong:    Give   the   position  to   whomever  you   find  is   the 

best  prepared. 
Right:    Give  the  position  to  whoever  you  find  is  the  best 

prepared. 

Note:  "Whoever"  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  "is";  not 
the  object  of  the  preposition  "to."  The  object  of  "to"  is 
the  entire  clause  "whoever  you  find  is  the  best  prepared." 

Wrong:    You  should  take  whomever  can  do  this  kind  of 

work. 
Right:    You  should  take  whoever  can  do  this  kind  of  work. 

*  See  Rule  29. 


ERRORS    IN    CASE    OF    PRONOUNS  27 

Note:  "Whoever"  is  the  subject  of  "can  do";  not  the 
object  of  "take."  The  object  of  "take"  is  the  entire  clause 
"whoever  can  do  this  kind  of  work." 

51.  A  predicate  substantive  that  completes  a  finite  verb 
is  put  into  the  nominative  case. 

Right:  It  was  7  who  signed  the  order. 

Right:  The  contracting  parties  are  we,  they,  and  she. 

Right:  Was  it  they  to  whom  you  have  telegraphed? 

Right:  What  would  you  have  done,  ,if  you  were  If 

52.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  should  be  in  the  objec- 
tive case. 

Right:    Give  the  position  to  whomever  you  find  to  be  the 
best  prepared. 
Note:     "Whomever"  is  the  subject  of  "to  be." 

53.  The  predicate  substantive  that  completes  an  infini- 
tive should  be  put  into  the  objective  case. 

Right:    We  believe  the  consignee  to  be  him. 

Note:  "Him"  is  the  predicate  substantive  that  completes 
the  infinitive  "to  be." 

54.  The  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition  should  be 
in  the  objective  case. 

Right:    He  meant  particularly  you  and  me. 

Right:    Whom  did  you  name? 

Right:    Remember,  this  is  between  you  and  me. 

55.  An  appositive  should  be  in  the  same  case  as  the  noun 
with  which  it  is  in  apposition. 

Right:  We  all  should  meet  at  the  hotel,  you,  he,  and  she. 
Right:  He  cancelled  agreements  with  the  two  of  us — 

Frank  Horn  and  me. 

Note :  "You,  he,  and  she"  are  in  apposition  with  "we,"  which 
is  in  the  nominative  case ;  therefore,  you,  he,  and  she  should 


28      GRAMMAR— GOOD    USE    IN    THE    SENTENCE 

be^  in  the  nominative  case.  "Frank  Horn  and  me"  are  in 
apposition  with  "two,"  which  is  in  the  objective  case;  there- 
fore, "Frank  Horn  and  me"  should  be  in  the  objective 
case. 

56.     Since  than  and  as  are  conjunctions,  not  prepositions, 
the  substantive  which  follows  takes  its  case  from  its  relation 
to  the  verb  in  the  subordinate  clause  introduced  by  than  or  as. 
Wrong:     He  has  more  influence  than  me. 
Right:     He  has  more  influence  than  /. 

("Than  I"  =  "than  I  have.") 
Right:     He  is  wealthier  than  /. 

("Than  I"  =  "than  I  am.") 
Right:     Frank  can  sell  as  well  as  7. 

("As  I"="as  I  can  sell.") 

Right:     He  would  consult  me  more  quickly  than  him. 
("Than  him"  =  "than  he  would  consult  him.") 

Possessives 

The  possessive  case  is  used  to  show  possession  or  ownership. 
57a.     Singular  nouns  form  their  possessive  by  the  addi- 
tion of  an  apostrophe  and  s  ('s)  to  the  nominative  case. 
Examples  :     The  company's  policy 
The  secretary's  report 

Note:  Even  though  a  noun  ends  in  s,  its  possessive 
singular  is  formed  in  the  usual  way  by  the  addition  of  an 
apostrophe  and  ^  ('s),  unless  the  repetition  of  the  j-sound 
makes  the  word  difficult  to  pronounce  or  unpleasant  in  sound. 
Hence  we  say  "Lewis's  salary,"  "Jones's  account" ;  but  "for 
goodness'  sake,"  "Ulysses'  sales  territory." 

57b.     Plural  nouns  that  end  in  s  form  their  possessive 
case  by  the  addition  of  an  apostrophe  alone  ('). 

Examples:    Youths'  suits 

Ladies*  umbrellas 
Boys'  blouses 


POSSESSIVES  29 

57c.  Plural  nouns  that  do  not  end  in  s  form  their  pos- 
sessive by  the  addition  of  apostrophe  and  s  ('s). 

Examples :    Men's  shoes 

Children's  clothing 
Women's  cloaks 

57d.  A  compound  noun  or  noun  phrase  forms  its  pos- 
sessive by  the  addition  of  an  apostrophe  and  s  (Js)  to  the 
last  word  only. 

Examples  :    The  Secretary-treasurer's  signature 

The  Palace  Theater's  new  show 

Note :  When  two  or  more  nouns  are  used  so  that  joint 
possession  is  indicated,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  ('s}  is 
added  to  the  last  only. 

Examples :    Lord  &  Taylor's  windows 

Rogers  Peet  Company's  new  store 
John  and  George's  new  houses     (This  expres- 
sion indicates  that  John  and  George  are  joint 
owners  of  the  new  houses) 

Note:  But  if  separate  possession  is  indicated,  the  sign  of 
the  possessive  follows  each  name. 

Examples :    John's   and    George's   new   houses      (This    ex- 
pression indicates  that  both  John  and  George 
separately  own  new  houses) 
Wanamaker's    and    Gimbel's    new    advertising 
campaigns 

57e.  In  the  case  of  nouns  that  are  in  apposition,  the 
possessive  is  indicated  in  various  ways. 

Examples :    At  Pach's,  the  photographer 
At  Pach's,  the  photographer's 

57f.  In  using  the  equivalent  for  the  possessive,  beware 
of  doubtful  meaning. 


30      GRAMMAR— GOOD    USE    IN    THE    SENTENCE 

Examples :   Hatred  of  Johnson  brought  on  the  trouble 
Johnson's  hatred  brought  on  the  trouble 
The  loss   of  their  star  salesman  depressed  the 

firm 

Their  star  salesman's  loss  depressed  the  firm 
Note:     On    close    examination   the    reader    will    see    that 
there  is  a  difference  in  meaning  between  the  sentences  given 
above. 

57g.  The  double  possessive  has  become  correct  through 
usage. 

Examples :    That  check  of  Thompson's 

Those  bonds  of  mine 

57h.  The  possessive  adjectives  theirs,  ours,  yours,  his, 
hers,  its  should  not  be  written  with  an  apostrophe. 

Wrong:     It's,  her's,  your's 

S7i.  The  possessive  case  ordinarily  is  used  to  show  real 
ownership  and,  accordingly,  is  usually  applied  only  to  things 
which  have  the  ability  to  possess;  i.e.,  things  that  are 
really  alive.  Thus  we  say  "the  manager's  check-book"  and 
"the  cover  of  the  check-book."  As  a  rule,  however,  we  do 
not  usually  say  "the  check-book's  cover,"  or  "the  chair's 
polish."  Such  expressions  as  "the  day's  work,"  "the  week's 
salary,"  "a  three  hours'  job,"  "a  two  years'  contract,"  are 
correct, because  of  common  usage. 

58.  The  genitive  (possessive)  case  of  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun should  be  used  before  the  verbal  noun  ending  in  "ing." 

Wrong:    We    have    just    been    informed    of    him    being 

successful. 

Right:     We  have  just  been  informed  of  his  being  successful. 
Wrong:     This  can  be  done  without  any  one  noticing  it. 
Right:    This  can  be  done  without  any  one's  noticing  it. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  31 

Adjectives  and  Adverbs 

59.  After  lookj  sound,  taste,  smell,  feel,  and  similar  verbs, 
and  in  such  expressions  as,  We  stand  firm,  We  stand  firmly, 
an  adjective  is  used  to  describe  the  subject.  To  modify  the 
verb,  an  adverb  should  be  used. 

Right:    These  vases  look  good. 

(Not,  "look  well.") 
Right:    Pinaud's   perfume   smells    exquisite. 

(Not,  "smells  exquisitely.") 
Right:    How  good  the  Victrola  sounds  on  the  porch! 

(Not,  "sounds  well.") 
Right:    I  feel  well. 

("Well"  is  an  adjective  in  this  use.) 
Right:    It  feels  good  to  get  back  to  my  office. 
Right:    We  stand  firm  in  our  conviction  of  our  rights. 
Right:    We  stand  firmly  by  our  decision. 
Right:    The  bonds  you  mailed  reached  us  safe. 
Right:    He  got  across  safe. 

Note:  As  a  rule  the  adjective  is  used  whenever  some 
form  of  the  verb  to  be  or  to  seem  may  be  used;  when  the 
adverb  is  used,  no  such  substitution  can  be  made. 

60.  In  such  expressions  as  He  rolled  it  tight,  He  rolled 
it  tightly,  We  kept  it  safe,  We  kept  it  safely,  the  modifier 
should  be  an  adjective  if  it  designates  the  condition  of  the 
object.  If  it  designates  the  manner  of  action  of  the  verb, 
the  modifier  should  be  an  adverb. 
Right:  He  rolled  it  tight. 

(Tight  designates  the  condition  of  the  object.) 
Right:    He  rolled  it  tightly. 

(Tightly  designates  the  manner  of  rolling.) 
Right:    We  kept  it  safe. 

(Safe  designates  the  condition  of  the  object.) 
Right:    We  kept  it  safely. 

(Safely  designates  the  manner  of  keeping.) 


32        GRAMMAR— GOOD  USE  IN  THE  SENTENCE 
Questions  of  Tense 

61.  The  tense  of  a  verb  should  correctly  express  the 
time  referred  to.  Obscurity  results  when  an  incorrect  tense 
of  a  verb  is  used,  for  the  reader  takes  a  meaning  from  the 
sentence  different  from  that  which  the  writer  tried  to  convey. 
Most  errors  in  the  use  of  tense  are  violations  of  some  one 
of  the  following  principles : 

*62.     Principal  verbs  referring  to  the  same  time  through- 
out a  passage  should  be  in  the  same  tense. 

Wrong:  We  recently  wrote  to  Mr.  Way  at  the  factory  in 
reference  to  the  delay.  In  reply  he  has  expressed  his 
regret  and  writes  further  that  as  far  as  he  can  see,  your 
material  will  be  delayed  a  week. 

Right:  We  recently  wrote  to  Mr.  Way  at  the  factory  in 
reference  to  the  delay.  In  reply  he  expressed  his  regret 
and  wrote  further  that  as  far  as  he  could  see,  the  material 
would  be  delayed  a  week. 

63.  The  perfect  indicative  represents  the  action  either 
as  now  completed  or  as  begun  in  the  past  but  continuing 
to  the  future;  as,  "I  have  sold  your  bonds"  (so  that  I  no 
longer  have  them)  ;  "I  have  known  him  for  years"  (I  still 
know  him). 

•  64.     The  tense  of  the  verb  in  a  dependent  clause  varies 
with  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb. 

1  Right:    I   know  that  you  will  realize  our  position  in  this 
matter. 
Right:    I  knew  that  you  would,  realize  our  position  in  this 

matter. 

Right :  We  have  sent  you  the  entire  order,  so  that  you  may 
have  a  complete  display. 


QUESTIONS  OF  TENSE  33 

Right:    We    had   sent   you    the    entire    order,    so    that   you 

might  have  a  complete  display. 

Right:  He  will  be  greatly  pleased  if  he  gets  this  order. 
Right :  He  would  be  greatly  pleased  if  he  got  this  order. 
Right:  He  would  have  been  greatly  pleased  if  he  had 

got  this  order. 

65.  Present    facts    and    unchangeable    truths,    however, 
should  be  expressed  in  the  present  tense,   regardless  of  the 
tense  of  the  principal  verb. 

Right:     He   explained   in  his   report  that   this   chemical  is 

composed  of  three  things. 

(Not,  was  composed.) 
Right:    We  learned   from  the  time  table  that  the  distance 

between  the  two  cities  is  seventy-four  miles. 
(Not,  was.) 

66.  The  perfect  infinitive  is  used  to  denote  action  prior 
to  that  of  the  governing  verb ;  otherwise,   use   the  present 
infinitive.      Be  careful   to  see  that  the  infinitives  and  con- 
ditional verb  phrases  are  not  incorrectly  attracted  into  the 
perfect  tense. 

Wrong:    He  meant  to  have  written  yesterday. 

Right :    He  meant  to  write  yesterday. 

Wrong:   He  expected  to  have  seen  you  tomorrow. 

Right :    He  expected  to  see  you  tomorrow. 

Right :     He  was  reported  to  have  sold  out. 

Right:    He  is  known  to  have  had  financial  difficulties. 

Note:  Ought,  need,  must,  and  should  (in  the  sense  of 
ought)  have  no  'distinctive  form  to  denote  past  time.  Pres- 
ent time  is  denoted  by  putting  the  complementary  infinitive 
into  the  present  tense;  past  time  is  denoted  by  putting  the 
complementary  infinitive  into  the  perfect  tense,  as,  "You 
ought  to  write,"  "You  ought  to  have  written"  "You  should 
be  careful,"  "You  should  have  been  careful." 


34        GRAMMAR— GOOD  USE  IN  THE  SENTENCE 

67.  A  verb  in  the  dependent  clause  within  a  conditional 
clause  should  be  in  the  present  tense  unless  it  denotes  action 
prior  to  that  of  the  governing  verb. 

Wrong:  The  letter  would  never  have  left  my  hands  if  I 
had  realised  the  damage  that  it  would  have  done. 

Right:  The  letter  would  never  have  left  my  hands  if  I 
had  realised  the  danger  that  it  would  do'. 

Right:  The  letter  would  never  have  left  my  hands  if  I 
had  known  what  had  happened  already. 

68.  The  present  participle  should  not  be  used  to  repre- 
sent an  action  that  is  not  of  the  same  time  as  that  of  the 
governing  verb. 

Wrong:    Leaving  here  on  May  25,  he  reached  Providence 

on  May  28. 
Right:    He  left  here  on  May  25  and  reached  Providence  on 

May  28. 
Wrong:    He  sailed  for  Liverpool  on  June  8,  arriving  there 

on  the  i6th. 
Right:   He  sailed  for  Liverpool  on  June  8  and  arrived  there 

on  the  i6th. 

69.  The  use  of  shall  and  will  is  rather  confusing  to 
'the  average  writer.     When   the  writer  desires  to  express 

simple  futurity  or  expectation  without  expressing  willing- 
ness, desire,  or  determination  on  the  part  of  the  writer,  he 
should  use  the  following  formula: 

I  shall  We  shall 

You  will  You  will 

He  will  They  will 

Wrong:    I  will  be  glad  to  hear  from  you. 

Right:    I  shall  be  glad  to  hear  from  you. 

(It  is  absurd  for  one  to  say  that  one  is  determined  to 

be  glad  to  hear  from  a  man.) 

Right:    They  will  be  glad  to  receive  your  letter. 


QUESTIONS  OF  TENSE  3g 

70.  When  the  writer  desires  to  express  determination, 
desire,  or  willingness  he  should  use  the  following  formula: 
(These  forms  imply  that  the  matter  is  within  the  control 
of  the  speaker  or  writer.) 

I  will  We  will 

You  shall  You  shall 

He  shall  They  shall 

I  certainly  will  not  pay  this  bill   (determination). 
He  shall  pay  for  that  bill  if  I  have  anything  to  do  with 
it   (  determination ) . 

You  shall  stay  out  of  this  territory,  even  though  I  have 
to  get  out  an  injunction. 

"It  shall  rain  to-morrow"  is  nonsense,  as  it  means  that 
the  speaker  or  writer  is  determined  to  have  it  rain  to- 
morrow. 

71.  In  questions,  the  use  of  shall  and  will  is  as  follows: 

a.  When  the  subject  is  in   the  first  person,  shall  is 
always  used,  except  in  repeating  a  question  addressed  to  the 
speaker. 

Right:    Will  I  let  you  have  that  discount?     Why  surely 

I  will. 
Right:   Shall   we   continue   to   mail   the   information  as   it 

comes  in? 
Right:   Shall  I  return  the  shipment? 

b.  When  the  subject  is  in  the  second  or  third  person, 
use  the  form  that  will  be  used  in  the  answer. 

Shall  you  arrive  on  the  8:20  train?  (The  answer  expected 
is:  "I  shall  arrive"  or  "I  shall  not  arrive  on  the  8:20 
train";  therefore  shall  ought  to  be  used  in  the  ques- 
tion.) 


36        GRAMMAR— GOOD  USE  IN  THE  SENTENCE 

Will  he  come,  do  you  suppose?     (The  answer  expected  is: 

"He   will  come"   or   "He  will  not  come,"   therefore   will 

ought  to  be  used  in  the  question.) 
Will  you  lend  me  the  money?     (The  answer  expected  is: 

"I  will"  or  "I  will  not  lend  you  the  money";  therefore 

will  ought  to  be  used  in  the  question.) 

72.  In    indirect    discourse,    use    the    form    that    would 
properly  be  used  in  the  direct  quotation. 

Right:     He   wrote   in   his    letter   that   he   should   probably 

arrive  on  the  8:20  train. 

Note:  In  the  letter  he  actually  wrote:  "I  shall  probably 
arrive  on  the  8:20  train";  therefore  shall  (an  inflectional 
form  of  should)  ought  to  be  used  in  the  direct  quotation. 
Right :  You  telegraphed  that  you  would  grant  me  the  favor. 

Note:  On  the  telegraph  blank  what  was  actually  written 
was :  "I  will  (showing  willingness  on  the  part  of  the 
writer)  grant  you  the  favor";  hence  would  (an  inflec- 
tional form  of  will)  ought  to  be  used  in  the  direct  quotation. 

73.  In  conditional  clauses,. such  as  those  introduced  by 
if  or  whether,  shall  is  used  to  express  futurity  in  all  persons. 

If  he  shall  mail  me  the  card,  I  shall  be  glad  to  send  him 
further  examples  (simple  futurity). 

If  he  should  leave  the  firm,  we  should  probably  find 
others  without  positions  (simple  futurity). 

74.  Should  and  would,  the  preterite  (imperfect)   forms 
of  shall  and  will,  are  used  in  the  same  connection  and  sense 
as  shall  and  will.     Other  uses  of  should  and  would  follow. 

a.  Would  may  be  used  to  express  frequentative  action. 
Right:     He  would  pace  the  floor  of  his  office,  hour  after 

hour. 

b.  Would  is  also  used  to  express  a  wish. 

Right:     I  would  that  I  could  help  you  in  your  difficulty. 


GENERAL  ERRORS  37 

75.  Should   is   frequently   used   to  express   moral   obli- 
gation. 

Right:    You  should  do  your  duty  no  matter  what  it  costs. 

General  Errors 

76.  Do  not  use  a  when  or  where  clause  in  place  of  a 
predicate  noun;  use  a  noun  with  modifiers. 

Wrong:    Insolvency  is  where  a  firm  cannot  meet  its  bills. 
Right:    Insolvency   is   the  condition  of   a  firm  which  can- 
not meet  its  bills. 

77.  Do  not  use  a  sentence   (except  a  quoted  sentence) 
as  the  subject  of  is  or  was. 

Wrong:  War  was  declared  in  Europe  is  why  the  Stock 
Exchange  closed. 

Right:  The  Stock  Exchange  closed  because  war  was  de- 
clared in  Europe. 

78.  Do  not  use  a  double  negative. 

Wrong:    We  don't  send  nothing  unless  it  is  paid  for  in 

advance. 

Right:    We  send  nothing  unless  it  is  paid  for  in  advance. 
Wrong :    I  don't  know  nothing  about  your  offer. 
Right:    I  know  nothing  about  your  offer. 

79.  Hardly,  scarcely,  only,  and  but  (in  the  sense  of  only) 
are  often  incorrectly  used  with  a  negative. 

Wrong:    If  you  were  to  search  for  many  years  you  couldn't 

hardly  find  a  safer  investment. 
Right:    If  you  were  to  search   for  many  years  you  could 

hardly  find  a  safer  investment. 


38       GRAMMAR— GOOD  USE  IN  THE  SENTENCE 

Wrong:    At  the  time,  we  couldn't  scarcely  figure  out  how 

he  stood. 
Right:    At  the  time,  we  could  scarcely  figure  out  how  he 

stood. 
Wrong:    On  account  of  the  high  cost,  we  are  not  able  to 

give  this  only  to  our  regular  customers. 
Right:    On  account  of  the  high  cost,  we  are  able  to  give 

this  only  to  our  regular  customers. 
Wrong:    We  haven't  but  one  sample  left. 
Right:    We  have  but  one  sample  left. 

80.  After  comparatives  accompanied  by  than,  the  words 
any  and  all  should  be  followed  by  other  or  else. 

Wrong:     This  tobacco  is  better  than  any  on  the  market. 

(The  construction  used  here  is  illogical  because  it  means 
that  the  tobacco  mentioned  is  better  than  itself.) 
Right:    The  tobacco  is  better   than  any   other  tobacco  on 

the  market. 
Wrong:    We  would  rather  do  business  with  you  than  with 

anyone. 
Right:     We  would  rather  do  business  with  you  than  with 

anyone  else. 

81.  Be  careful  to  restrict  the  use  of  any  and  all  by 
other  or  else. 

Wrong:  A  pleasant  feature  of  these  straw  hats,  not  to 
be  found  in  any  make,  is  the  unique  transparent  lining. 

Right:  A  pleasant  feature  of  these  straw  hats,  not  to  be 
found  in  any  other  make,  is  the  unique  transparent 
lining. 

Wrong:  Woven  in  selected  camel's  hair  in  undyed  effects, 
this  rug  has  a  wearing  quality  lacking  in  all  rugs. 

Right:  Woven  in  selected  camel's  hair  in  undyed  effects, 
this  rug  has  a  wearing  quality  lacking  in  all  other  rugs. 


III.     SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Length 

82.  The  sentence  is  the  simplest  unit  of  expression,  but 
upon  its  use  depends  the  effectiveness  of  the  thought.     The 
sentence  may  be  defined  as  a  group  of  words  grammatically 
united  to  express  a  complete  thought  or  idea.     A  group  of 
words,  such  as  "Circulation   exceeding  200,000  copies."  is 
not  a  sentence  despite  the  fact  that  it  begins  with  a  capital 
letter  and  ends  with  a  period.    There  is  no  complete  thought 
contained  therein. 

83.  Sentence   length   is   an   important   consideration   in 
business  English,  since,   to  get  the  best  results,  the  length 
must  be  arbitrarily  adapted  to  the  reader  and  to  the  type 
of  letter.    Short  sentences  should  be  used  in  writing  to  busi- 
ness men,  to  farmers,  and,  in  general,  to  progressive  people 
and  to  uneducated  people.    By  a  short  sentence  we  mean  one 
that  contains  less  than  fifteen  words. 

84.  A  writer  sometimes  gives  his  letters  a  distinctive 
character  by   the  use   throughout  of  sentences  of  a  given 
length — usually  short  sentences.     This  practice  is  not  de- 
serving of  encouragement.     It  is  desirable,  however,  to  avoid 
the  use  of  sentences  of  a  length  that  may  interfere  with  the 
accomplishment  of  the  purpose  of  the  letter. 

85.  In  sales  letters,  letters  of  application,  and  collection 
letters,  which  try  to  arouse  the  reader  to  action,  short,  in- 
cisive sentences  are  most  likely  to  be  used. 

39 


'Kinds  of  Sentences 


40  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

86.  Long  sentences  are  suitable  in  writing  to  teachers, 
women,  professional  men,  and  in  general,  to  educated  people 
and  to  conservative  people.     By  a  long  sentence  we  mean 
one  that  contains  more  than  twenty-five  words. 

87.  In   letters,   such   as  answers  to  complaints,  letters 
refusing  credit,  and  letters  adjusting  differences,  which  try 
to  soothe  the  reader  who  is  aroused,  long,  smooth  sentences 
are  most  effective.       / 

,       /„, 

88.  The  three  types  of  sentences,  loose,  periodic,  and 
balanced,  should  be  used. 

89.  The  loose  sentence  is  a  sentence  so  constructed  that 
it  may  be  closed  at  two  or  more  places  and  yet  make  com- 
plete sense. 

Example:     We  have  made  you  concession  after  concession 
and  have  tried  to  keep  you  a  satisfied  customer,  but  your 
last  demand  is  too  much. 
(The  sentence  can  be  closed  after  the  words  "concession" 

and  "customer.") 

90.  The  periodic  sentence  holds  the  complete  thought 
in  suspense  until  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

Examples :     One  of  the  foundation  stones  upon  which  the 
Delco  success  has  been  built  is  the  Delco  Ignition. 

From  whatever  viewpoint  true  efficiency  is  judged,  Fire- 
stone Non-Skids  furnish  the  full  answer. 

91.  The  balanced  sentence  is  made  up  of  members  similar 
in  form  but  often  contrasted  in  meaning. 


UNITY  IN  THE  SENTENCE  41 

Examples :    Get  the  Welch  habit ;  it's  one  that  can't  get  you. 
They  don't  come  back  so  often,  but  they  do  come  back 
for  more. 

If  it  isn't  an  Eastman,  it  isn't  a  Kodak. 
We  couldn't  improve  the  powder;  so  we  improved  the 
box. 

The  Principles  of  Construction 

92.  In  business  letter  writing  and  in  all  other  forms  of 
business   composition,    there   are   certain   principles   of   con- 
struction   called    Unity,    Coherence,    and    Emphasis,    which 
the  writer  must  apply  to  his  constructive  work  of  writing, 
if  he  desires  to  make  his  message  effective.     If  his  message  is 
constructed  in  accordance  with  these  principles,  it  is  likely 
to  be  clear  and  effective.     The  applications  of  these  three 
principles  to  sentence  structure  are  given  below. 

Unity  in  the  Sentence 

93.  Unity  is  the  selective  principle  which  requires  that 
the  sentence  contain  but  one  central  idea.     Unity  requires 
also  that  closely  related  thoughts  should  not  be  improperly 
scattered  among  several  sentences. 

v94.  Two  or  more  statements  that  have  no  close  con- 
nection with  one  another  should  not  be  embodied  in  one 
sentence. 

Bad:  We  should  like  to  call  your  attention  to  our  facili- 
ties for  this  work,  and  you  will  find  that  we  live  up  to 
our  word. 

Good:  We  should  like  to  call  your  attention  to  our  facili- 
ties for  this  work.  You  will  find  that  we  live  up  to 
our  word. 


42  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Bad:     This  laundry  was  named  for  President  Lincoln  and 

has  a  reputation  for  first-class  work. 

Better:    This  laundry  was  named  for  President  Lincoln.    It 
/    has  a  reputation  for  first-class  work. 

95.  It  is  possible,  sometimes,  to  correct  a  sentence  made 
up  of  two  statements  lacking  connection  with  each  other  by. 
expressing  a  connection  between  the  statements. 

Bad:  The  entire  load  comes  on  the  motor  suddenly,  and 
we  expect  to  put  a  heavy  fly-wheel  on  the  motor  shaft 
to  carry  it  over  these  points  of  excessive  load. 

Good:  Since  the  entire  load  comes  on  the  motor  suddenly, 
we  expect  to  put  a  heavy  fly-wheel  on  the  motor  shaft 
to  carry  it  over  these  points  of  excessive  load. 

Bad:  Our  packer  has  signed  the  check  for  having  enclosed 
the  lace,  and  we  should  like  you  to  examine  carefully 
the  contents  of  the  package. 

Good:  As  our  packer  has  signed  the  check  for  having 
enclosed  the  lace,  we  should  like  you  to  examine  care- 
fully the  contents  of  the  package. 

J96.  Long  compound  sentences  consisting  of  many  state- 
ments connected  with  and  Js  and  but  Js  are  to  be  avoided. 

Bad:  ,The  goods  were  shipped  to  you  on  June  15,  and  we 
can  prove  this  fact  by  the  carbon  duplicate,  but,  neverthe- 
less, we  have  put  on  a  tracer  and  in  all  likelihood,  there- 
fore, you  will  soon  receive  the  goods. 

Good:  The  goods  were  shipped  to  you  on  June  15.  We 
can  prove  this  fact  by  the  carbon  duplicate.  We  have, 
nevertheless,  put  on  a  tracer,  and  in  all  likelihood,  there- 
fore, you  will  soon  receive  the  goods. 

97.  Avoid  excessively  long  sentences.  Although  such 
sentences  are  not  necessarily  objectionable,  they  are  usually 


UNITY  IN  THE  SENTENCE  43 

incapable  of  making  a  single  definite  impression  upon  the 
reader's  mind.  They  are,  moreover,  likely  to  have  serious 
structural  faults,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  lack 
of  unity. 

98.  Long  sentences  are  common  in  business  letters,  be- 
cause, in  dictating,  one  is  easily  led  from  one  idea  to  another 
until  he  has  strung  together  a  large  number  of  them. 

Do  not  change  the  point  of  view  unnecessarily. 

Bad:  /  have  just  finished  writing  my  report,  and  it  will 
be  sent  to  you  to-morrow. 

Good:  /  have  just  finished  writing  my  report,  and  will 
send  it  to  you  to-morrow. 

Bad:  In  order  to  test  this  watch,  it  has  been  subjected  to 
the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  (The  point  of  view  at 
the  beginning  is  that  of  the  persons  who  have  made  the 
test.  The  point  of  view  after  the  comma  is  that  of  the 
object  that  has  been  tested.) 

Good:  In  order  to  test  this  watch,  we  have  subjected  it 
to  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  (The  point  of  view 
throughout  is  that  of  the  persons  who  have  tested  the 
watch.) 

Bad:     Upon    releasing    the   backward   pressure,    the    wheel 

coasts  on  with  entire  freedom. 
Good:    After  the  backward  pressure  has  been  released,  the 

wheel  coasts  on  with  entire  freedom. 

100.  Unite  into  one  sentence,  phrases,  clauses,  and 
sentences  that  are  closely  and  logically  connected  with  one 
another  in  thought. 

Bad :  Our  machine  will  handle  250  cards  per  minute.  While 
no  other  machine  can  handle  even  150. 


44  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Good:     Our    machine    will    handle    250    cards    per    minute, 

whereas  no  other  machine  can  handle  even  150. 
Bad:    Our  accountant  has  already  sent  us  two  letters  about 

your  case.     Also  one  report. 
Good:    Our  accountant  has  already  sent  us  two  letters  and 

one  report  about  your  case. 
Bad:     We  have  just  received  your  telegram.     It  informs  us 

of  the  non-arrival  of  your  desk. 
Good:    We  have  just  received  your  telegram,  which  informs 

us  of  the  non-arrival  of  your  desk. 

101.  Do  not  write  two  unrelated  independent  clauses 
following  each   other,   with   only  a  comma   for  separation. 
Either  make   two  sentences  or  connect  them  with   a  con- 
junction.     (This  is  sometimes  called  the  "comma"   fault.) 

Bad:    There  are  only  a  few  of  these  suits  left,  we  are  sell- 
ing them  at  a  great  reduction. 

Good:    There  are  only  a  few  of  these  suits  left.     We  are 
selling  them  at  a  great  reduction.     Or 
As  we  have  only  a  few  of  these  suits  left,  we  are  selling 
them  at  a  great  reduction. 

Coherence 

102.  Coherence  is  the  principle  which  requires  the  ar- 
rangement  and   construction   of   the   sentence   to   be   clear, 
logical,  and  free  from  ambiguity. 

v  103.     Each  modifier  should  be  so  placed  that  the  reader 

sees  unmistakably  to  what  word  or  group  of  words  it  refers. 

Not  clear:    Inform  my  secretary  that  I  should  like  to  know 

why  he  was  absent  if  he  is  there. 

Clear:    Inform  my  secretary,  if  he  is  there,  that  I  should 
like  to  know  why  he  was  absent. 

Not  clear:     This  company  sold  all  of  its  stock  just  before 
it  went  into  bankruptcy  at  greatly  reduced  figures. 


COHERENCE  IN  THE  SENTENCE  45 

Clear:     This  company,  just  before  it  went  into  bankruptcy, 
/sold  all  of  its  stock  at  greatly  reduced  figures. 

^104.     Do  not  place  an  adverb  or  a  phrase  between  the 

infinitive  and  its  sign  to.     (This-is  called  the  split  infinitive.) 

Bad:    The  firm  stands  ready  to  quickly  deliver  the  article 

at  any  time. 
Good:    The  firm  stands  ready  to  deliver  quickly  the  article 

at  any  time. 
Bad:     In  order   to   fully  assure  you  of  our  standing,   we 

are  mailing  our  latest  report. 
Good :    In  order  fully  to  assure  you  of  our  standing,  we 

are  mailing  our  latest  report. 

105.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  place  adverbs  as 
close  as  possible  to  the  words  they  modify. 

Bad:    This  company  can't  even  handle  its  present  orders. 
Good :    This  company  can't  handle  even  its  present  orders. 
Bad:    We  only  have  ten  shares  of  this  stock. 
Good:    We  have  only  ten  shares  of  this  stock.     (See  Only.) 

106.  Correlatives  should  be  placed  next  to  the  expres- 
sions they  are  meant  to  connect. 

Bad:    Insiders  in  sugar  not  only  continue  to  take  stock,  but 

also  to  create  a  great  demand  for  it. 
Good:    Insiders  in  sugar  continue  not  only  to  take  stock, 

but  also  to  create  a  great  demand  for  it. 
Bad:     We    neither    have    received    your    letter    nor    your 

telegram. 
Good:      We    have    received   neither   your   letter   nor   your 

telegram. 

107.  The  use  of  the  participle  in  the  absolute  construc- 
tion is  to  be  avoided,  because  it  does  not  express  the  exact 
relation  between  the  two  ideas.     (Compare  with  Rule  41.) 

*  See  Rule  29. 


6  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Bad:     Early  copy  means  early  proof,  avoiding  the  necessity 

for  hasty  revision. 
Good :    Since   early  copy  means   early  proof,   the  necessity 

for  hasty  revision  is  avoided. 
Bad:    Advertisements  of  1500  lines  or  more  will  be  placed 

on  a  separate  page,  the  remainder  of  the  page  containing 

interesting  news  matter. 
Good:    Advertisements  of  1500  lines  or  more  will  be  placed 

on   a   separate   page.     The   remainder   of   this   page   will 

contain  interesting  news  matter. 
Bad:    All  our  available  supply  having  been  lost  in  the  fire, 

we  are  unable  to  fill  your  order. 
Good:    Since  all  our  available  supply  has  been  lost  in  the 

fire,  we  are  unable  to  fill  your  order. 
Bad:    The  goods   having  arrived,  we  quickly   disposed  of 

them. 
Good :    After  the  goods  had  arrived,  we  quickly  disposed  of 

them. 

108.    Avoid  a  loose  arrangement  of  relative  clauses. 
Bad :  We  had  on  hand  a  good  stock,  which  we  used  to  meet 

the  demand  at  this  time,  which  was  the  rush  season. 
Good:    We  had  on  hand  a  good  stock,  which  we  used  to 
meet  the  demand  of  the  rush  season. 

/1 09.     Avoid  long,  incoherent,  ill-connected  sentences. 

Bad :  We  also  found  that  by  manufacturing  the  boats  in 
large  quantities  and  building  them  all  just  alike,  we 
could  reduce  the  cost  and  be  able  to  furnish  a  high- 
grade  boat  at  a  price  that  would  be  within  the  reach 
of  the  ordinary  purchaser  and  thus  enable  us  to  sell  boats 
in  large  quantities  so  that  we  could  accept  a  small  profit 
on  each  boat  and  still  make  a  good  profit  on  the  total 
investment. 

Good:  We  also  found  that  by  manufacturing  the  boats  in 
large  quantities  and  by  building  them  all  just  alike  we 


OMISSIONS  47 

could  reduce  the  cost  and  be  able  to  furnish  a  high-grade 
boat  at  a  price  that  would  be  within  the  reach  of  the 
ordinary  purchaser.  In  this  way  we  should  be  enabled 
to  sell  boats  in  large  quantities  so  that  we  could  accept 
a  small  profit  on  each  boat  and  still  make  a  good  profit 
on  the  total  investment. 

110.  Avoid   the  placing  of  a  clause  so  that  the  verb 
following  it  is  incorrectly  connected  with  the  verb  of  the 
clause. 

Bad:  He  entered  my  office  just  as  the  price  of  the  stock 
jumped  two  points  and  walked  nervously  about  the  room. 

Good:  Just  as  the  price  of  the  stock  jumped  two  points, 
he  entered  my  office  and  walked  nervously  about  the 
room. 

111.  The  parts  of  the  sentence  should  be  arranged  so 
that  the  sentence  reads  smoothly  and  clearly.     Parenthetical 
expressions  are  especially  likely  to  injure  the  smoothness  of 
the  sentence. 

Bad :  Our  sales  manager,  a  man  considered  to  be  a  cracker- 
jack  salesman,  contrary  to  our  wishes,  started  the  new 
campaign. 

Good:  Our  sales  manager,  who  is  considered  to  be  a 
crackerjack  salesman,  started  this  new  campaign  contrary 
to  our  wishes. 

Bad :  We  are  enclosing  our  latest  catalogue,  which  we  know 
will  be  of  interest  to  retailers,  dealing  with  our  newest 
models. 

Good:  We  are  enclosing  our  latest  catalogue  dealing  with 
our  newest  models  which  will  be  of  interest  to  retailers. 

Omissions 

112.  A  serious  fault  in  business  correspondence   is  the 
omission  of  words  needed  to  complete  tne  grammatical  con- 


48  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

struction  of  the  sentence.     This  fault  arises  from  haste,  or 
'  from  an  attempt  at  conciseness.    The  result  is  that  the  reader 
cannot  so  easily  follow  the  thought  of  the  writer. 

113.  Parts  of  verbs  which  are  needed  to  complete  the 
grammatical  construction,  and  which  cannot  be  supplied  from 
the  preceding  part  of  the  sentence,  should  not  be  omitted. 

Bad:    As  you  requested,  the  stock  certificate  was  registered 

and  the  bonds  sent. 
Good:   As  you  requested,  the  stock  certificate  was  registered 

and  the  bonds  were  sent. 

Bad:    The  letter  never  has  and  never  will  be  sent. 
Good:    The  letter  never  has  been  and  never  will  be  sent. 

114.  Do  not  make  one  form  of  the  verb  be  serve  both 
as  a  principal  and  as  an  auxiliary  verb. 

Bad:  His  report  was  convincing  and  appreciated  by  the 
directors. 

Good :  His  report  was  convincing  and  was  appreciated  by 
the  directors. 

Bad:  The  pamphlet  was  made  up  in  good  form  and  in- 
teresting. 

Good:  The  pamphlet  was  made  up  in  good  form  and  was 
interesting. 

115.  Principal  verbs  should  not  be  supplied  from  one 
part  of  the  sentence  to  another  if  the  same  form  is  not  gram- 
matically correct  in  both  parts.    The  correct  form  should  be 
written  for  each  part. 

Bad:    He  ran  such  an  office  as  only  the  true  executive  can. 
Good:    He  ran   such  an  office  as  only  the  true  executive 

can  run. 

Bad :   Our  house  did  what  many  others  have  and  are  doing. 
Good :   Our  house  did  what  many  others  have  done  and  are 

doing. 


OMISSIONS  49 

116.  Two  expressions  of  comparison,  one  of  which  is 
an  adjective  preceded  by  as,  and  the  other,  an  adjective  in 
the  comparative  degree,  should  not  both  be  completed  by  a 
single  as  clause  or  a  single  than  clause,  unless  that  clause 
immediately  follows  the  expression  of  comparison  that  stands 
first  in  the  sentence. 

Bad :    This  price  is  as  good  if  not  better  than  any  other  you 

can  get. 
Good :    This  price  is  as  good  as  any  other  you  can  get,  if  not 

better. 
Bad:    Our  twenty-pound  paper  is  cheaper  and  just  as  good 

as  Amco. 
Good:    Our  twenty-pound  paper  is  cheaper  than  Amco  and 

just  as  good. 

117.  A  single  modifying  clause  or  phrase  should   not 
limit  two  sentence  elements  unless  that  modifier  is  idiomati- 
cally adapted  to  both. 

Bad:  Frank  Jones  will  make  a  good  employee,  because  of 
the  experience  and  the  good  work  he  has  done. 

Good:  Frank  Jones  will  make  a  good  employee,  because 
of  the  experience  he  has  had  and  the  good  work  he  has 
done. 

Bad:  This  office  has  no  connection  or  knowledge  of  the 
house  you  mentioned. 

Good :  This  office  has  no  connection  with  or  knowledge  of 
the  house  you  mentioned. 

(This  sentence  is  correct,  but  is  awkward;  the  following 
one  is  better.) 

This  office  has  no  connection  with  the  house  you  men- 
tioned and  no  knowledge  of  it. 

118.  Two  incomplete  members  of  a  sentence,   one  re- 
quiring a  single  noun  to  complete  it,  and  the  other  a  plural 


50  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

noun,  should  not  both  be  completed  by  one  noun  unless  that 
noun  immediately  follows  the  incomplete  member  standing 
first  in  the  sentence. 

Bad:   This  bond  is  one  of  the  safest,  if  not  the  safest  bond, 

for  the  investor. 

Good :    This  bond  is  one  of  the  safest  bonds  for  the  in- 
vestor, if  not  the  safest. 
Bad:    Consent  to  this  and  all  future  issues  must  be  given 

by  the  Public  Service  Commission. 

Good :  Consent  to  this  issue  and  to  all  future  issues  must 
be  given  by  the  Public  Service  Commission. 

119.  The  subject  of  the  sentence,  when  in  the  first  per- 
son, should  not  be  omitted. 

Bad:    Have  received  your  letter  of  March  16. 

Good:   /  have  received  your  letter  of  March  16. 

Bad :    Shall  let  you  know  after  I  have  seen  the  secretary. 

Good :    /  shall  let  you  know  after  I  have  seen  the  secretary. 

120.  The  articles  a,  an,  and  the  should  not  be  omitted. 

Bad :    We  have  sent  bill  and  goods  to  home  address  of  firm. 

Good:  We  have  sent  the  bill  and  the  goods  to  the  home 
address  of  the  firm. 

Bad :  Wanted — A  woman  who  understands  little  about  cook- 
ing, to  take  charge  of  small  lunch  room. 

Good:  Wanted — A  woman  who  understands  a  little  about 
cooking,  to  take  charge  of  small  lunch  room. 

*121.     Subordinating  conjunctions  should  not  be  omitted. 

Bad:    He  wrote  me  he  had  sent  the  order. 
Good:    He  wrote  me  that  he  had  sent  the  order. 

"122.     Do  not  omit  prepositions. 

Bad:    The  following  day  we  received  your  check. 
Good:    On  the  following  day  we  received  your  check. 

~See  Rule  29. 


COORDINATION  AND  SUBORDINATION  51 

Bad:    This  announcement  was  published  the  gth  of  May. 
Good:   This  announcement  was  published  on  the  Qth  of  May. 
Bad:    All  bids  will  be  opened  Saturday. 
Good:   All  bids  will  be  opened  on  Saturday. 

123.  Do  not  leave  comparisons  incomplete. 

Bad:    The  make-up  of  the  pamphlet  marked  "2"  is  better. 
Good:     The  make-up  of  the  pamphlet  marked  "2"  is  better 
than  that  of  the  pamphlet  marked  "i" 

Coordination  and  Subordination 

124.  Do  not  join  a  relative  clause  to  the  principal  clause 
by  and  or  but. 

Bad :    The  chief  told  me  about  the  favor  you  had  done  and 

which  I  want  to  thank  you  for. 
Good :    The  chief  told  me  about  the  favor  you  had  done, 

which  I  want  to  thank  you  for. 
Bad :    One  of  the  best  salesmen  on  the  staff  is  John  Ripley 

of    New   York   City,   and   who    is   only   twenty-six   years 

of  age. 
Good:     One   of    the   best   salesmen   on   the   staff   is   John 

Ripley  of  New  York  City,  who  is  only  twenty-six  years 

of  age. 
Good :    He  is  a  man  in  whom  we  can  trust  and  from  whom 

we  can  expect  conscientious  work.     (In  this  sentence  one 

relative  clause  is  connected  with  another  relative  clause.) 


V12 


125.  Do  not  join  one  idea  to  a  preceding  idea  by  and, 
but,  or  or,  unless  it  is  logically  coordinate.  Subordinate 
ideas  should  be  put  into  subordinate  grammatical  forms. 

Bad:  The  shortage  has  not  been  made  good  by  the  rail- 
road, and  we  must  ask  you  to  make  it  good. 

Good:  As  the  shortage  has  not  been  made  good  by  the 
railroad,  we  must  ask  you  to  make  it  good. 


52  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Bad:  Your  check  was  received  two  days  late,  but  we  can- 
not allow  you  the  discount. 

Good:  As  your  check  was  received  two  days  late,  we  can- 
not allow  you  the  discount. 

126.  Do  not  join  coordinate  verbs  in  a  sentence  with  the 
adverbs  so,  then,  or  also. 

Bad :    The   reproducing  point  is  a  genuine  diamond,  so  it 

will  not  wear  out. 
Good:    The  reproducing  point  is  a  genuine  diamond  and  so 

will  not  wear  out. 

Bad:    The  varnish  is  applied  with  a  brush,  then  rubbed  in. 
Good:     The    varnish    is    applied    with    a    brush    and    then 

rubbed  in. 
Bad :    You  will  be  delighted  with  the  big  showing  of  spring 

fabrics,  also  will  be  pleased  with  our  new  array  of  hats. 
Good:     You    will    be    delighted    with    the    big    showing    of 

spring    fabrics    and   also    will,   be   pleased   with   our    new 

array  of  hats. 

127.  Two  consecutive  statements  should   not  both*  be 
introduced  by  but  or  for. 

Bad :  His  explanation  of  the  cost  system  used  was  under^ 
stood  by  most  of  us,  but  several  did  not  understand  cer- 
tain details,  but  they  did  not  say  anything. 

Good :  His  explanation  of  the  cost  system  used,  was  un- 
derstood by  most  of  us ;  several  did  not  understand  cer- 
tain details,  but  they  did  not  say  anything.  Or, 
His  explanation  of  the  cost  system  used,  was  understood 
by  most  of  us.  Several  did  not  understand  certain  de- 
tails, but  they  did  not  say  anything. 

Bad :  Such  a  watch  becomes  a  true  companion,  for  it  never 
fails  you,  for  it  keeps  time  to  the  infallible  second. 

Good :    Such  a  watch  becomes  a  true  companion ;  it  never 
fails  you,  for  it  keeps  time  to  the  infallible  second.     Or, 
Such  a  watch  becomes  a  true  companion.     It  never  fails 
you,  for  it  keeps  time  to  the  infallible  second. 


COORDINATION  AND  SUBORDINATION  53 

128.  Avoid  the  use  of  the  adverb  so  for  the  purpose  of 
compounding  sentences. 

Bad:    We  understood  that  you  were  interested  in  our  trip, 

so  we  sent  you  our  pamphlet  and  circulars. 
Correct  (but  not  preferable)  :   We  understood  that  you  were 

interested  in  our  trip;  so  we  sent  you  our  pamphlet  and 

circulars. 
Preferable:    As  we  understood  that  you  were  interested  in 

pur  trip,  we  sent  you  our  pamphlet  and  circulars. 

129.  Avoid    the    "House   That    Jack    Built"    style    of 
subordination:  i.  e.,  do  not  use  a  series  of  similar  clauses  or 
a  series  of  similar  phrases  in  such  a  construction  that  the 
second  depends  on  the  first,  the  third  on  the  second,  and  so  on. 

Bad :  On  page  15  you  will  see  the  drawings  that  have  been 
made  of  this  engine  which  is  the  marvel  of  expert 
engineers. 

Good :  On  page  15  you  will  see  the  drawings  of  this  engine 
that  is  the  marvel  of  expert  engineers. 

Bad:  The  tobacco  is  treated  by  a  patented  process  so  that 
the  bite  is  taken  out,  so  that  smoking  is  once  more  a 
pleasure  to  those  smokers  that  have  tender  tongues. 

Good :  The  tobacco  is  treated  by  a  patented  process,  so 
that  the  bite  is  taken  out.  Smoking  is  thereby  once  more 
made  a  pleasure  to  those  smokers  that  have  tender 
tongues. 

130.  The  principal  clause  of  a  complex  sentence  should 
contain  the  most  important  statement ;  the  subordinate  clause 
should  contain  the  secondary  or  qualifying  statement.     Be 
especially  careful  of  the  use  of  a  when  clause. 

Bad:    We  were  shipping  their  order  when  news  came  that 

they  had  filed  a  petition  in  bankruptcy. 
Good:     When  we  were  shipping  their  order,  news  came  that 

they  had  filed  a  petition  in  bankruptcy. 


54  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Bad:     The  monthly  quota  had  almost  been  reached  when 

all  at  once  sales  fell  off  in  every  place. 
Good:   The  monthly  quota  had  almost  been  reached.    All  at 

once  sales  fell  off  in  every  place. 

/  Parallelism 

131.  Parallel  ideas  in  a  sentence  should  be  put,  as  a 
rule,  in  parallel  construction.     If  one  idea  is  expressed  by 
an  infinitive,  the  other  also  should  be  so  expressed;  if  one  is 
a  relative  clause,  the  other  should  be;  and  so  on. 

Bad:    I   have  written  to  him  to  send  me  his   report  and 

that  he  should  also  leave  immediately  for  Chicago. 

Note :     The    infinitive    construction    "to    send"    and    the 
subordinate    clause   construction   "that   he   should"   are   not 
in  parallel  form.    This  makes  the  sentence  awkward. 
Good :    I  have  written  to  him  to  send  me  his  report  and 

also  to  leave  immediately  for  Chicago.     Or, 

I  have  written  to  him  that  he  should  send  me  his  report 

and   that  he  should  also  leave  immediately  for   Chicago. 
Bad:     We    wrote   personal    letters   to    customers    who    had 

formerly  done  business  with  us  and  now  they  were  with 

our  competitors. 
Good:    We  wrote  personal  letters   to   customers  who   had 

formerly  done  business  with  us  and  who  were  now  with 

our  competitors. 
Bad:    The  capital  necessary  to  start  the  business  and  for 

running  it  several  years  is  now  at  our  disposal. 
Good:     The  capital  necessary  to  start  the  business  and  to 

run  it  for  several  years  is  now  at  our  disposal. 

Emphasis 

132.  The  principle  of  emphasis  is  of  special  importance 
in  business  English,   for  from   its  correct  application  come 
many  of  the  rhetorical  effects  that  make  strong  impressions 
on  the  reader.   It  is  one  means  of  making  a  sentence  forceful. 


EMPHASIS  IN  THE  SENTENCE  55 

133.  Emphasis   results  from  arrangement.     It  requires 
that  the  sentence  be  so  arranged  that  the  principal  idea  is 
brought  into  prominence  and  that  the  minor  details  are  sub- 
ordinated.    It  requires  also  that  the  important  idea  in  the 
sentence  be  so  presented  that  its  importance  cannot  but  be  felt. 

134.  Only  when  particular  stress  is  required  need  the 
principle  of  emphasis  be  applied. 

^35.     Avoid  a  weak  beginning  in  an  important  sentence. 

Unemphatic :    In  other  words,  the  American  business  man 

has  been  "playing  the  game  alone. 
Emphatic:    The   American  business   man,   in  other  words, 

has  been  playing  the  game  alone. 
Unemphatic:     Therefore,    you    should    select    your    filing 

equipment  for  what  it  will  do. 

Emphatic:     You  should  therefore  select  your  filing  equip- 
ment for  what  it  will  do. 
Unemphatic:     Moreover,    no    saving    of    a    few    cents    can 

balance   what  you   lose   in  attention  through  the  use   of 

inferior  paper. 
Emphatic :    No  saving  of  a  few  cents,  moreover,  can  balance 

what  you  lose  in  attention  through  the  use  of   inferior 

paper. 

v!3<S.     Avoid  a  weak  ending  in  an  important  sentence. 
Unemphatic:    We  want  to  inform  you  that  you  have  not 

sent  in  your  check  for  some  reason  or  other. 
Emphatic:    We  want  to  inform  you  that  for  some  reason 

or  other  you  have  not  sent  in  your  check. 
Unemphatic:    It  would  be  well  for  you  to  anticipate  your 

needs  now,  if  your  stock  is  not  complete  for  the  holiday 

season. 
Emphatic:    If  your  stock  is  not  complete  for  the  holiday 

season,  it  would  be  well  for  you  to  anticipate  your  needs 

now. 


56  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Unemphatic:     A  filing  system  is  an  asset  to  a  business,  it 

being  a  time-saver. 
Emphatic:    A  filing  system  is  an  asset  to  a  business,   for 

it  is  a  time-saver. 
Emphatic:     Pure    white    lead    and    pure    linseed    oil    make 

reliable   paints — of   any   tint — and   they  last. 

137.  A   change   from   the   usual   order   often   makes   a 
great  change   in   emphasis;   but  be  sure  that   awkwardness 
does  not  result. 

Unemphatic:    Now  is  the  time  to  mail  the  enclosed  card. 

Emphatic:    The  time  to  mail  the  enclosed  card  is  now. 

Unemphatic:     Service  is  what  you  need  now. 

Emphatic:    What  you  need  now  is  service. 

Unemphatic:  Reform  right  now  if  you  have  been  making 
the  mistake  of  looking  upon  these  things  as  trifles. 

Emphatic:  If  you  have  been  making  the  mistake  of  look- 
ing upon  these  things  as  trifles,  reform  right  now. 

138.  A    principle   of   climax   now    extensively   used    in 
advertising    and   sales-letter  writing   is   known   as   "Herd's 
Principle."     This  principle  makes  use  of  a  series  of  three 
words,  three  phrases,  or  three  clauses  arranged  according  to 
length,  the  shortest  first  and  the  longest  last,  or  with  the 
longest  first  and  the  shortest  last.     These  arrangements  will 
secure  a  cumulative  climax.     A  series  of  four  members  is 
likely  to  be  too  long  sustained  and  to  drag.    Examples : 

With  its  tasty  zest,  its  inviting  fragrance  and  natural 
color,  and  its  recognized  wholesome  and  nourishing  after 
effects — there  is  indeed  no  soup  like  it. 

For  the  best  cleanser,  for  an  aid  to  a  clear  complexion, 
for  something  that  is  more  than  mere  soap — there  is  only 
one  choice— PALMOLIVE. 


EMPHASIS  IN  THE  SENTENCE  57 

Besides  its  remarkable  strength,  besides  its  perfect  writ- 
ing and  erasing  qualities,  and  besides  its  ability  to  stand  the 
severest  test  to  which  a  business  paper  can  be  put — Blank 
Linen  Paper  has  a  remarkably  low  price. 

139.  To  produce  a  climax,  arrange  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses  according  to  their  importance,  with  the  most  import- 
ant last. 

Emphatic :  To  these  handy  cabinets  the  business  world 
is  indebted  for  thousands  of  hours  saved,  for  thousands 
of  mistakes  prevented,  and  for  an  increase  in  efficiency 
that  can  never  be  measured. 

Emphatic:  Wherever  packing  costs  must  be  considered, 
wherever  transportation  charges  are  an  item,  wherever 
safety  of  goods  in  transit  must  be  assured — the  fibre-board 
box  is  replacing  the  wooden  box. 

Emphatic :  The  Rauch  &  Lang  automobile  means  a  silence 
that  is  manifest,  a  power  economy  hitherto  unknown,  and 
a  driving  simplicity  that  appeals  to  the  most  sensitive 
woman. 

Emphatic :  With  my  emergency  automobiles,  with  my  expert 
electricians,  with  a  factory  and  supply  rooms  at  my  dis- 
posal— I  can  give  you  fast  service  and,  what  is  as  import- 
ant— good  work. 

140.  Avoid  all  words  that  add  nothing  to  the  thought. 

Verbose :   In  regard  to  the  offer  that  you  made  me,  I  should 

like  to  inform  you  that  I  will  accept  it. 
Concise :    I  accept  your  offer. 

141.  Avoid  the  use  of  there  are  and  there  is  in  beginning 
an  emphatic  sentence. 

Unemphatic:  There  are  two  special  designs  featured  in 
E.  &  W.  shirts. 


58  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Emphatic:    In    E.    &    W.    shirts,    two    special    designs    are 

featured. 

Unemphatic:    There  are  only  five  parts  to  this  machine. 
Emphatic :    This  machine  has  only  five  parts. 

142.  Unless  emphasis  is  sought,  do  not  strain  to  keep 
the  often-prescribed  rule  that  no  sentence  should  end  with 
a  preposition. 

Correct:    I  left  the  receipt  to  be  called  for. 
Correct:    His  side  of  the  story  is  the  only  side  I  know  of. 
Correct:    We  were  glad  to  hear  of  the  success  you  were 
meeting  with. 

143.  Do  not  tack  on  an  additional  clause  at  the  end  of 
a  sentence  which,  apparently,  is  complete  in  thought. 

Bad:  The  other  concern  is  planning  to  open  a  very  strong 
advertising  campaign;  or  at  least  it  is  rumored  so. 

Good :  The  other  concern,  it  is  rumored,  is  planning  to 
open  a  very  strong  advertising  campaign. 

144.  Do  not  use  the  participle  in  the  absolute  construc- 
tion.   It  weakens  the  force  of  the  sentence.     (See  Rule  107.) 

Weak:  This  typewriter  having  won  the  contest,  we  began 
to  advertise  strongly. 

Better:  After  this  typewriter  had  won  the  contest,  we  be- 
gan to  advertise  strongly. 

Euphony 

145.  The  sentence  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  will 
have  a  pleasing  sound. 

146.  Avoid  the  use  of  words  and  combinations  of  words 
which  are  difficult  to  pronounce. 


REVISION    AFTER   DICTATION  59 

Bad:    These  bonds  are  our  best  offerings. 

Bad :    We  require  a  day  to  do  two  of  these  plates. 

Bad :    Fire  alarms  need  never  annoy  you  if  you  have  our 

sprinkler. 

147.  Avoid  repeating  the  same  word  in  a  sentence. 
Bad :   After   we  had   received  your   order   we   ordered   our 

agents  to  order  the  lamps  from  Hackett  &  Company. 
Good :  After  we  had  received  your  order  we  directed  our 
agents  to  buy  the  lamps  from  Hackett  &  Company. 

148.  Avoid  an  unintentional  rhyme  or  the  repetition  of 
similar  sounds. 

Bad :  We  have  made  few  sales  on  our  No.  8  pails. 
Bad:  We  shall  write  to  right  this  matter. 

Revision  After  Dictation 

149.  Effective  sentences  are  secured  by  revision.     This 
means  that  after  you  have  expressed  your  thoughts  and  have 
them  before  you  on  paper,  you  should  go  over  your  work 
to  correct  the  mistakes  you  have  made ;  in  this  way  alone  can 
you  secure  clear,  forceful  sentences  which  are  grammatically ., 
correct.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  strive  to  think  of  your 
idea  and  grammatical  rules  at  the  same  time  you  will  find 
that  you  have  secured  grammatical  but  forceless  sentences. 

Two  points  to  be  remembered  are:  First,  get  your  ideas 
down  on  paper;  second,  revise  for  mistakes  in  sentence 
structure.  The  necessity  for  this  is  constant.  Even  experi- 
enced writers  sometimes  find  that  their  sentences  show  cer- 
tain habitual  faults;  for  instance,  the  frequent  use  of  the 
participle  in  the  absolute  construction,  or  the  split  infinitive. 
If  nothing  more,  there  is  often  a  lack  of  flexibility — a  failure 
to  make  use  of  appropriate  sentence  forms.  The  writer  who 
has  not  mastered  the  possibilities  of  the  various  sentence 


60  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

forms  is  as  much  hampered  as  the  one  whose  vocabulary  con- 
tains only  a  few  hundred  words. 

150.  To  be  effective,  a  sentence  must  be  clear,  interest- 
ing, grammatical,  and  correctly  adjusted  to  its  place  in  the 
paragraph.  It  is  by  revision  that  we  are  given  the  opportu- 
nity of  going  over  our  sentences  to  find  whether  or  not  they 
are  effective  sentences.  All  sentences,  with  the  exception  of 
recognized  idioms,  should  be  constructed  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 


IV.    PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE. 

151.  The   paragraph,   the   largest   unit   in   composition, 
is  the  development  of  one  specific  topic.     It  must  have  a 
clearly  defined  central   idea  upon  which  every  one  of  the 
sentences  directly  bears.     In  most  letters  and  compositions 
the  paragraph  should  have  the  power-to-stand-alone  quality. 
Under   certain   conditions   in   business   English,    as   in   sales 
letters,    paragraphs    do    not    develop    a    specific    topic,    but 
state  merely  an  idea  in  one  short  sentence  in  order  to  attract 
attention.     Such  forms  are  not  paragraphs  according  to  the 
literary  standard,  but  are  only  passages  that  have  the  out- 
ward  appearance   of   the   paragraph.     In   business   English, 
however,    paragraphs    are    formed    arbitrarily    to   meet    the 
demand  for  emphasis,  attention,  ease  in  reading,  and  so  on. 

152.  The  paragraph  was  designed  mainly  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  reader,  and  accomplishes  this  end   in  two 
ways:     first,  it  makes  reading  easy  for  the  eye  by  breaking 
up  the  solid  masses  of  reading  matter;  second,  it  makes  read- 
ing easy  for  the  brain  by  giving  it  a  resting  place  and  a 
fresh    start.     The    paragraph    has,    for    its    purpose,    the 
economizing  of  the  reader's  attention. 

153.  A  page  of  type  or  printed  matter  is-  made  more 
attractive  and  restful  to  the  eye  and  mind  by  being  broken 
up  into  paragraphs.     This  fact  is  especially  made  use  of  in 
sales  letters  and  advertising  copy. 

154.  The  mechanical  marks  of  a  paragraph  are:  the  in- 
dention  of   the   first   line,   double   space   between   the   para- 

61 


62  PARAGRAPH   STRUCTURE 

graphs   with    no    indention,    a   combination   of   both,    or   a 
paragraph  sign  (fl). 

155.  The  length  of  paragraphs,  as  of  sentences,  is  of 
importance  in  business  English.     Certain  desired  impressions 
can  be  imparted  to  the  reader  by  paragraphs  of  different 
lengths,  but  the  writer  must  harmonize  his  sentence  struc- 
ture with  his  paragraph  structure.     (See  Rule  84.) 

156.  The  length  of  the  paragraph  depends  largely  upon 
the  tone  that  is  to  be  used,  the  class  of  readers  that  is  to  be 
reached,  and  the  result  that  is  desired. 

157.  The  snappy,  brisk,  progressive  tone  is  secured  by 
the  use  of  short,  live  paragraphs.     The  polished,  dignified, 
formal,   conservative   tone   is   secured   by   the   use   of   long, 
smooth  paragraphs.     Adapt  your  tone  so  that  it  will  repre- 
sent yourself  and  your  house. 

158.  The  short  paragraph  is  used  in  writing  to  unedu- 
cated people,  progressive  business  men,  farmers,  and  so  on. 
The  long  paragraph  is  used  in  writing  to  educated  people, 
professional  classes,  wealthy  classes,  women,  and  conservative 
business  men. 

159.  Where  action  is  desired,  or  where  attention  needs 
to  be  attracted,  use  short  paragraphs.     When  you  desire  to 
convince,  or  to  conciliate  the  reader — as  in  letters  answering 
complaints — or  when  you  desire  smoothness  or  delicacy  of 
touch,  use  long  paragraphs. 

160.  By  a  short  paragraph  we  mean  one  that  consists  of 
not  more  than  two  short  sentences.    By  a  long  paragraph  we 
mean  one  that  consists  of  four  or  more  sentences. 

161.  Do  not  as  a  rule  use  all  long  or  all  short  para- 
graphs  in    the   composition.     A   variety   of   paragraphs,    of 


PARAGRAPH  LENGTH  63 

different  lengths,  is  more  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  mind  than 
paragraphs  of  the  same  length  throughout,  and  gives  the 
writer  opportunity  for  emphasizing  important  ideas  by  put- 
ting them  into  short  paragraphs. 

162.  In  such  types  of  business  English  as  sales-letters 
and  advertisements,  good  effects  may  be  secured  from  para- 
graphing an  important  clause. 

The  Pictorial  Section  of  the  New  York  Times  is  the 
woman's  supplement  of  the  best  Sunday  newspaper  in 
America.  It  is  read  from  cover  to  cover. 

What  the  Pictorial  Section  has  done — is  doing — for 
others,  it  can  do  for  you — 

If  you  give  it  an  opportunity. 

163.  When  attention  is  to  be  secured,  as  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  sales-letter,  short,  crisp  paragraphs  should  be  used. 

A  flicker,  a  flash,  and  the  high-pitched  hum  of  your 
generators  ceases. 

That  means  trouble. 

You  know  what  happens  then,  because  you  have  been 
through  the  same  thing  before.  There  is  the  hustling 
around,  the  finding  of  the  "trouble,"  the  imperative  de- 
mand for  speed  in  repair,  because  you  must  get  the 
power 

Compare  this  with: 

A  flicker,  a  flash,  and  the  high-pitched  hum  of  your 
generators  ceases.  That  means  trouble.  You  know  what 
happens  then,  because  you  have  been  through  the  same 
thing  before.  There  is  the  hustling  around,  the  finding 
of  the  "trouble,"  the  imperative  demand  for  speed  in 
repair,  because  you  must  get  the  power 


64  PARAGRAPH   STRUCTURE 

164.  When  action  Js  desired,  the  short,  brisk  paragraph 
should  predominate  in  the  letter  as  in  the  following  example : 

Gentlemen : 

The  New  York  Times  is  the  acknowledged  financial  ad- 
vertising medium  in  New  York.  It  prints  more  financial 
announcements  than  any  other  newspaper  in  the  world. 

On  January  4,  1914,  the  New  York  Times  will  publish  a 
special  section  dealing  with  financial  transactions  of  1913 
on  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange,  with  a  business  fore- 
cast for  1914. 

There  will  be  cable  dispatches  from  European  financial 
centers,  giving  reviews  of  market  conditions  and  much 
other  information  of  value. 

This  special  section  will  be  read  by  bankers,  brokers,  busi- 
ness men  and  investors  generally.  It  will  have  a  sale  of  at 
least  200,000  copies. 

We  suggest  the  insertion  of  an  advertisement  or  state- 
ment of  your  bank  in  the  columns  of  the  New  York 
Times  Annual  Financial  Number  of  January  4th.  The 
cost  will  be  $ —  per  column,  21^2  inches  long  and  pro  rata 
to  one-quarter  single  column.  Smaller  space  at  $ —  per 
inch,  single  column. 

We  send  a  sample  copy  of  the  New  York  Times  under 
another  cover. 

We  shall  appreciate  your  order. 

Yours  very  truly, 

165.  Long  paragraphs  are  used   in  letters  that  adjust 
differences,  refuse  credit,  answer  complaints,  and  so  on. 


PARAGRAPH  LENGTH  6'5 

Example:  We  were  glad  to  receive  your  letter  of  March  8, 
in  which  you  informed  us  that  the  table  sent  you  on 
February  25  was  not  received  in  perfect  condition,  be- 
cause it  gives  us  this  opportunity  of  assuring  you  that 
everything  will  be  made  just  as  you  want  it.  Although 
our  records  show  that  the  table  was  all  right  in  every 
respect  when  it  went  from  our  Inspection  Department, 
nevertheless,  under  no  circumstances  would  we  want  you  to 
keep  anything  from  our  house  that  was  not  just  right. 

Note:  This  long  paragraph  with  its  long  sentence  struc- 
ture, since  it  is  far  removed  from  the  curt,  action-getting 
short  paragraph  structure,  gives  the  impression  of  smooth- 
ness and  calmness. 

166.     When   the   impression   of   strength,   solidity,   and 
conservatism  is  desired,  use  long  paragraphs. 

Example :  On  behalf  of  the  Government  of  the  State  of 
'Sao  Paulo,  tenders  of  all  or  any  part  of  $350,000  of  these 
bonds  at  prices  below  par  and  interest  are  invited.  All 
tenders  should  be  in  writing,  and  be  in  the  office  of  the 
Federal  City  Bank  of  Brooklyn  on  or  before  July  9, 
1914.  These  tenders  should  clearly  indicate  the  amount 
offered,  the  price  expressed  on  an  "and  interest"  basis  and 
include  an  agreement  to  deliver  bonds  accepted  on  tenders 
to  the  Federal  City  Bank  of  Brooklyn  within  five  days 
from  the  advice  of  the  acceptance  of  such  tenders  against 
payment  in  New  York  funds. 

Example:  Considerable  time  has  passed  since  we  first  ap- 
proached you,  and  as  we  should  like  to  know  definitely 
the  present  status  of  these  matters,  it  will  be  appre- 
ciated if  you  will  check  the  enclosed  card.  This  will  give 
us  information  that  will  materially  assist  us  in  our  efforts 
to  serve  you.  It  will  also  enable  us  to  address  you  on 
your  requirements  at  the  proper  time,  or  will  permit  us  to 
remove  your  name  from  our  follow-up  files. 


66  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE 

167.  Long  paragraphs  are  used  to  convince. 

Example :  Just  see  what  we  do  to  give  you  good  goods  at 
low  prices.  We  go  into  the  raw  material  markets  and 
make  purchases  in  immense  quantities.  That's  one  big 
saving.  The  raw  stuff  comes  to  us  in  car  quantities — that 
means  no  leakage  for  transportation.  We  work  it  up 
under  the  most  systematic  methods  that  a  corps  of  the 
world's  best  manufacturing  experts  can  devise — more 
saving.  It  is  done  in  a  factory  that  is  known  throughout 
the  land  for  its  completeness,  comfortable  appointment 
and  excellent  arrangement.  From  the  time  the  steel  is 
refined  and  the  oak  and  hickory  are  milled  out  of  the 
log  until  they  come  together  in  the  finished  vehicle,  there 
is  no  opportunity  for  waste.  That's  how  we  economize 
for  you. 

Unity  in  the  Paragraph 

168.  The  purpose  of  paragraphing  is  to  economize  the 
reader's  time;  i.  e.,  to  make  the  reading  as  easy  as  possible 
for  him. 

169.  Good  paragraphing  is  a  matter  of  prevision.    The 
dictator  or  writer  of  a  letter  should  know,  before  he  starts, 
the  distinct  topics  that  he  is  going  to  put  into  this  letter.     It 
is  a  good  rule  to  jot  down  the  topics  on  paper  before  starting 
to  dictate.     After  a  little  practice  one  can  hold  them  in  his 
head.     Especially  in  answering  letters  is  it  a  good  plan  to 
pick  out  the  topics  and  know  how  you  are  going  to  paragraph 
them.    The  dictator  should  not  think  in  a  random,  desultory 
way,  but  should  think  in   paragraphs.     Thinking  in  para- 
graphs is  a  characteristic  of  good  correspondents  and  should 
be  cultivated.     It  depends  on  common  sense  and  logic. 


UNITY  IN  THE  PARAGRAPH  67 

170.  The  reader  can  quickly  comprehend  the  thought 
if  he  sees  a  logical  progress  from  idea  to  idea.     The  visible 
method  of  showing  this  progress  is  to  put  each  distinct  idea 
into  a  paragraph  by  itself.     By  this  mechanical  method,  the 
visible  detachment  of  the  paragraph  from  what  precedes  and 
what  follows,  the  reader  is  told  that  a  new  idea  is  being 
presented,  and  he  is  thereby  prepared  for  it.     If  two  distinct 
ideas  were   in   the  same   paragraph,   the  reader  would   not 
easily  see  where  one  left  off  and  the  other  began.     This 
would  mean  confusion  and  an  indistinct  impression,  for  the 
mind  can  grasp  with  complete  clearness  only  one  idea  at  a 
time.    To  help  the  reader  we,  therefore,  have  the  following 
rule: 

171.  A  paragraph  should  contain  but  one  distinct  idea. 
Every  sentence  in  the  paragraph  should  directly  aid  in  de- 
veloping  that  idea.   If  a  sentence  does  not  pertain  imme- 
diately to  the  main  idea  it  does  not  belong  in  the  paragraph. 

Example:  Behind  this  concern  lies  a  matchless  experience. 
It  has  dealt  for  decades  with  hundreds  of  big  affairs. 
It  has  stood  for  the  pilot  in  countless  vast  undertakings, 
and  has  seen  all  the  rocks  and  shoals.  Its  intimates  have 
been  the  successful.  It  has  men  of  ideas,  men  who  know 
human  nature.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  there  such 
a  corps  of  all-round  experts  in  salesmanship.  And 
they  work  together — mass  their  abilities — on  each  under- 
taking. 

Note :  The  above  paragraph  contains  two  distinct  ideas : 
(i)  the  idea  that  the  concern  has  had  a  matchless  experi- 
ence ;  and  (2)  the  idea  that  its  employes  are  experts.  We 
should,  therefore,  break  up  the  paragraph  into  two  para- 
graphs, each  containing  a  separate  idea. 


68  PARAGRAPH   STRUCTURE 

Improved:  Behind  this  concern  lies  a  matchless  experi- 
ence. It  has  dealt  for  decades  with  hundreds  of  big 
affairs.  It  has  stood  for  the  pilot  in  countless  vast  un- 
dertakings, and  has  seen  all  the  rocks  and  shoals.  Its 
intimates  have  been  the  successful. 

It  has  men  of  ideas,  men  who  know  human  nature.  No- 
where else  in  the  world  is  there  such  a  corps  of  all- 
around  experts  in  salesmanship.  And  they  work  to- 
gether— mass  their  abilities — on  each  undertaking. 

172.  To  test  the  unity  of  a  paragraph,  see  if  the  para- 
graph can  be  summed  up  in  one  key  sentence.     If  the  two 
paragraphs  given  just  above  are  tested  for  unity  the  key  sen- 
tences are :  ( i )  this  concern  has  had  a  matchless  experience  ; 
(2)  this  concern  has  expert  workers. 

173.  In   many  cases   the   functions  that  a  letter  must 
perform  determine  the  paragraphing  of  the  letter.     A  letter 
answering  a  complaint,   for  example,   should   perform   four 
functions,  in  the  order  given :   ( i )   impress  the  reader  with 
the  belief  in  your  sincerity  and  good  will;   (2)   show  the 
causes  of  the  trouble  and  the  facts  in  the  case;   (3)   state 
what  you  are  going  to  do  about  the  complaint,  what  you 
have  done,  and  what  you  wish  the  complainant  to  do;   (4) 
convince  the  complainant  that   it  is  still  to  his  advantage 
to  do  business  with  you. 

174.  A  letter   answering   a   complaint,    therefore,   will 
have  at  least  four  paragraphs — i.  e.,  one  paragraph  for  each 
function  or  each  new  idea.     The  writer  may  find  that  sev- 
eral paragraphs  may  be  needed  to  give  the  causes  of   the 
trouble.     In  that  case  each  of  the  several  paragraphs  should 
make  a  complete  step  in  the  progress  of  the  message. 


UNITY  IN  THE  PARAGRAPH 


69 


Note :  The  following  letter  was  sent  in  answer  to  a  letter 
of  complaint  stating  that  unless  shipments  were  made  on 
time  the  business  of  the  complainant  would  cease: 

Conciliates  We  desire  to  thank  you  for  your  letter  of  July  15, 
in  which  you  called  our  attention  to  the  fact  that 
you  have  not  received  the  goods  ordered  by  you  on 
June  20.  Allow  us  to  express  our  regret  also  for 
any  inconvenience  caused  you  by  the  non-arrival  of 
the  shipment. 

States  the     We  have  gone   over  our  records  and  have   found 
facts  in          that  your  order  left  the  shipping  department  on  June 
the  case         23.     According  to  our  schedule  these  goods  should 
have  been  received  by  you  by  July  7  at  the  very 
latest.    It  occasionally  happens  that  the  railroad  mis- 
places or  unnecessarily  delays   shipments,  and  this 
has  probably  happened  with  your  order. 

Tells  what  Already  we  have  started  a  tracer  to  find  out  what 
has  been  the  trouble  is,  but  if  we  cannot  locate  the  goods 
done  within  the  next  four  days,  we  shall  send  you  a 

duplicate  shipment. 

A  bid  for     We  are  extremely  sorry  that  there  has  been  this 

a  continua-  delay,  but  it  is  one  of  those  cases  that  are  out  of 

tion  of          our  hands.    We  know  that  you  will  understand  that 

business        it  is  not  the  fault  of  our  house,  but  that  of  the 

railroad  company.     We  shall  do  everything  in  our 

power  to  see  that  such  a  delay  does  not  occur  again. 

175.  Another  example  of  paragraphing  determined  by 
functions  to  be  performed  is  the  sales-letter.  The  functions 
of  a  sales-letter  are:  (i)  to  attract  attention;  (2)  to  create 
desire;  (3)  to  convince;  (4)  to  stimulate  to  action.  Each 
function  should  have  at  least  one  paragraph.  It  will  often 
be  necessary  to  devote  several  paragraphs  to  the  developing 
of  one  function. 


PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE 


Attracts        Dr.  Steinmetz,  up  at  the  General  Electric  Company, 
attention       at  Schenectady,  is  a  better  electrician  than  a  politi- 
cian, although  he  did  run  on  the  Socialist  ticket  in 
this  last  election. 

Creates         Like  Steinmetz,  I  am  a  better  man  at  one  thing  than 
desire  I  am  at  all  others.    That  one  thing  is  the  installing 

of  electrical  machinery  and  the  doctoring  of  it  when 

it  is  sick. 

Creates         You,  of  course,  are  interested  in  making  profits,  and 
desire  the  best  way  to  get  increased  profits  is  by  cutting 

down  expenses.  An  item  of  expense  that  you  have 
to  meet  is  that  of  repairs  to  electrical  apparatus — 
whether  the  electrical  machinery  of  a  large  power 
plant  or  merely  the  wiring  of  a  building  for  bells 
or  lights. 

Convinces  Time  and  again  has  my  organization  been  tested  on 
installment  and  repair  problems  of  the  most  complex 
character,  and  time  and  again  it  has  shown  its  ability 
to  handle  the  problem  with  the  maximum  of  effi- 
ciency. The  experience  that  I  have  gained  in  this 
specific  work  during  the  past  fourteen  years  I  now 
offer  you.  It  has  been  successful  experience  too, 
for,  should  you  want  evidence  concerning  my  past 
achievements,  I  can  give  you  the  names  of  my 
clients.  They  will  answer  your  questions,  because 
they  are  satisfied  with  my  work. 

Stimulates     Call  me  up  personally  at  112  party  S,  Jersey  City, 
to  action       or  mail  the  enclosed  card. 

176.     Paragraph  each  speech  of  a  conversation. 
Wrong :    The  history  of  this   disagreement  is   as   follows : 


I  wrote,  "Will  you  take 
$1.0254"  ne  telegraphed, 
replied. 


$1.02  a  bushel?"     "Must  have 
"I  will  take  it  at  $i.o21/£,"  I 


FORM  PARAGRAPHS  71 

Right:    The  history  of  this  disagreement  is  as  follows: 
I  wrote,  "Will  you  take  $1.02  a  bushel?" 
"Must  have  $1.02^,"  he  telegraphed. 
"I  will  take  it  at  $1.02%,"  I  replied. 

Form  Paragraphs 

177.  In  order  to  save  time  in   handling  routine  cor- 
respondence   many    business    houses    use    form    paragraphs. 
These  paragraphs  have  been  selected  from  successful  letters, 
or  have  been  written  expressly  to  be  used  as  paragraphs  to 
form  the  letter.     They  are  indexed  and  numbered,  so  that 
they   may   be   quickly   recombined   to   answer  most  letters. 
Sometimes  they  can  be  used  to  make  up  the  entire  letter,  but 
in  most  cases  they  can  be  used  for  a  part  of  the  letter  and 
the  remainder  can  be  dictated. 

178.  The  principle  of  unity  has  a  practical  use  in  form 
paragraphs,  for,  unless  each  paragraph  deals  with  but  one 
point,  it  cannot  be  combined  with  many  other  paragraphs. 
The  form  paragraph  reaches  the  maximum  of  efficiency  only 
when  it  is  a  unit — only  when  it  is  complete  in  itself. 

179.  Another  argument  in   favor  of  the  use  of  form 
paragraphs   for   routine   correspondence   is   that   since   each 
paragraph  has  been  carefully  selected  or  written  it  is  more 
effective  than  the  paragraph  dictated  on  the  spur  of  the  mo- 
ment.    Then  again,  the  general  standard  of  the  letters  of 
the  house  will  be  raised  through  the  use  of  good  form  para- 
graph  letters,    because   the   head    correspondent   can   easily 
supervise  the  paragraphs  in  use. 

180.  After  a  little  practice  the  correspondents  will  re- 
member  by    its    number    the    exact    paragraph    they   want. 
Then  they  make  up  the  answers  to  letters  by  jotting  down 


72  PARAGRAPH   STRUCTURE 

on  the  letters  the  numbers  of  the  paragraphs -with  any  fill- 
in  data.    An  example  of  this  is: 
6 14 

25 suit  model    14687 

42 

So 

The  stenographer  goes  to  her  file  of  paragraphs  and 
copies  those  paragraphs  which  have  been  numbered  on  the 
letters,  at  the  same  time  filling  in  the  points  given.  The 
result  is  the  following  letter: 

We  are  glad  to  acknowledge  with  thanks  the  receipt  of 
your  order  of  May  14. 

On  account  of  the  heavy  orders  we  have  received  dur- 
ing the  last  week  we  are  temporarily  out  of  stock  of 
suit  model  14687.  We  had  already  placed  an  order  with 
our  factory  to  fill  up  our  line  in  that  model  and  expect 
to  receive  it  within  a  few  days.  We  have  accordingly 
placed  your  order  on  file  and  shall  forward  the  goods  as 
soon  as  we  receive  them. 

We  are  very  sorry  that  we  are  unable  to  ship  your 
order  at  once  and  sincerely  hope  that  you  will  not  be 
inconvenienced  by  this  short  delay. 

We  thank  you  for  your  order  and  hope  that  we  may 
be  allowed  to  serve  you  again  in  the  near  future. 

Coherence  in  the  Paragraph 

181.  Coherence  in  the  paragraph  demands  that  the  sen- 
tences be  arranged  in  logical  order  and  that  they  be  so  con- 
structed and  connected  as  to  make  smooth  the  progress  of 
the  thought.  Fast,  smooth,  reading  is  especially  desirable  in 
sales-letter  and  in  advertising  copy  so  that  the  attention  of 
the  reader  may  be  held.  The  demands  of  space  and  the 


. 


COHERENCE  IN  THE  PARAGRAPH       73 

demand  of  fast  reading  in  sales-letters  and  advertising  copy 
cause  a  connotative  coherence  (/.  e.,  a  coherence  secured 
by  logical  presentation  of  the  thought  assisted  but  little  by 
the  use  of  expressed  connecting  phrases  or  words)  to  be 
used  in  those  cases. 

182.     Arrange  the  members  of  a  sentence  so  as  to  form 
close  connection  with  the  preceding  sentence. 

Poor  Connection :  You  will  find  on  investigation  that  a 
large  number  of  the  principal  contractors  now  own  their 
own  diving  apparatus  and  use  their  own  men  for  such 
diving  as  they  have  to  do.  The  expense  and  loss  of 
time  due  to  securing  a  regular  diver  is  thus  saved. 
Better  Connection :  You  will  find  on  investigation  that  a 
large  part  of  the  principal  contractors  now  own  their 
own  diving  apparatus  and  use  their  own  men  for  such 
diving  as  they  may  have  to  do.  This  saves  the  expense 
and  loss  of  time  due  to  securing  a  regular  diver. 
Poor  Connection:  Our  confidence  in  the  system  and  in 
your  ability  to  appreciate  its  merits  when  fairly  tested 
is  so  great  that  we  are  willing  to  bear  all  this  risk  and 
expense.  If  the  outfit  were  not  in  every  wray  worthy  of 
the  high  endorsement  it  has  received  we  could  not  do  this. 
Better  Connection :  Our  confidence  in  the  system  and  in 
your  ability  to  appreciate  its  merits  when  fairly  tested 

I  is  so  great  that  we  are  willing  to  bear  all  this  risk  and 
expense.  This  we  could  not  do  if  the  outfit  were  not  in 
every  way  worthy  of  the  high  endorsement  it  has  re- 
ceived. 

Poor  Connection:  In  one  type  of  system,  the  dynamo  or 
generator  and  the  starting  motor  are  combined  in  a  single 
unit.  These  units  are  separate  and  work  independently 
in  the  Gray  and  Davis  Starting-Lighting  System. 
Better  Connection :  In  one  type  of  system,  the  dynamo  or 
generator  and  the  starting  motor  are  combined  in  a  single 
unit.  In  the  Gray  and  Davis  Starting-Lighting  System, 
these  units  are  separate  and  work  independently. 


74  PARAGRAPH   STRUCTURE 

183.  Two  or  more  sentences  that  have  the  same  logical 
relation  to  the  main  idea  should  be  arranged  in  similar  form. 

Examples :  The  Goodyear  No-Rim-Cut  Tires  excel  all 
other  tires  in  at  least  four  ways.  They  save  the  count- 
less blowouts  due  to  wrinkled  fabric.  They  prevent 
absolutely  rim-cutting.  They  combat  loose  treads  and 
lessen  the  risk  by  sixty  per  cent.  They  have  the  all- 
weather-tread — tough,  double  thick  and  enduring. 
The  quality  of  our  piano  is  of  the  very  highest  char- 
acter. It  has  been  highly  commended  by  the  world's 
most  renowned  of  musical  artists.  It  is  a  piano  that 
will  grace  any  parlor.  It  has  been  sold  to  the  best 
families,  in  the  Uriited  States. 

184.  A  judicious  use  of  connecting  words  to  show  the 
relation  of  one  sentence  in  the  paragraph  to  the  preceding 
sentence  aids  the  reader  in  getting  the  thought.  This  method 
is  very  useful  in  argumentative  and  explanatory  work,  for 
the  connecting  words  act  as  sign  posts  to  point  out  an  in- 
tricate way.      In   rapid  narration,   however,   it  is  likely  to 
result  in  a  break  in  the  thought.     A  careful  use  of  good 
connectives  helps;  an  unnecessary  use  deadens  and  slows  up 
the  thought. 

185.  When   one  sentence  introduces  a  modification  of 
the  assertion  made  in  the  preceding  sentence,  such  relation 
should  usually  be  shown  by  a  connective,  as,  to  be  sure,  at 
the  same  time,  etc. 

Example:  We  can  ship  you  this  order  so  that  it  will  reach 
you  by  July  2.  We  admit,  to  be  sure,  that  this  is  made 
subject  to  conditions  out  of  our  control. 

186.  When  one  sentence   introduces  a  consequence  of 
what  precedes,  such  relation,  unless  obvious,  should  be  indi- 
cated by  a  connective  word  or  phrase,  as,  therefore,  hence, 
accordingly,  as  a  result,  and  so  on. 


COHERENCE  IN  THE  PARAGRAPH      75 

Example:  If  your  work-rooms  are  not  properly  ventilated 
your  employees  cannot  do  efficient  work.  You  lose  money 
as  a  result,  because  you  lose  service. 


187.  When  one  sentence  makes  a  statement  contrasting 
with  a  preceding  sentence,  such  relation  should  be  shown  by 
some  connective,  such  as  but,  nevertheless,  on  the  other  hand, 
and  so  on. 

Example:  Our  orders  at  first  will  be  tentative.  In  a  very 
short  time,  however,  we  shall  be  in  a  position  to  gauge 
the  demand  and  frame  our  orders  accordingly. 

188.  Connection  between  sentences  can  be  secured  by 
the  use  of  demonstratives  (this,  that,  etc.),  pronouns  (he,  it, 
they,  etc.),  and  by  repetition. 

Example :  As  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  foul  air,  we 
suggest  our  electric  suction  fan.  It  will  draw  out  the 
foul  air  and  allow  fresh  air  to  take  its  place.  This  suction 
fan  can  be  installed  in  any  window  or  partition  and  oper- 
ated for  three  and  one-half  cents  an  hour. 

189.  The  point  of  view  in  a  paragraph  should  not  be 
unnecessarily  changed.     Do  not,  however,  strain  to  keep  the 
same  subject. 

Bad :  Fill  out  and  mail  the  enclosed  post  card  and  a  50  lb. 
sample  order  at  the  regular  cash  price  will  be  shipped  to 
you.  It  should  be .  given  a  thorough  test  and  if  it  is 
not  found  to  be  the  best  value  you  ever  had,  there  will 
be  no  charge. 

Good:  Fill  out  and  mail  the  enclosed  post  card  and  you 
will  receive  a  50  lb.  sample  order  at  the  regular  cash 
price.  Give  it  a  thorough  test  and  if  you  do  not  find 
it  to  be  the  best  value  you  ever  had  you  will  not  be 
charged  a  cent. 


76  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE 

190.  Arrange  facts  in  chronological  order. 

Bad:  Here  are  the  facts  as  we  have  them  on  our  records. 
We  notified  you  on  September  8  about  the  possible  delay 
in  shipment.  We  received  your  order  on  September  5 
for  goods  embraced  in  our  new  line,  which  was  not 
promised  until  early  in  October.  The  notification  probably 
went  astray,  since  you  did  not  get  it.  The  bill  of  lading 
was .  mailed  on  October  15  and  .the  goods  were  sent 
October  13. 

Good:  Here  are  the  facts  as  we  have  them  on  our  records. 
We  received  your  order  on  September  5  for  goods  em- 
braced in  our  new  line,  which  was  not  promised  until 
early  in  October.  We  notified  you  on  September  8  about 
the  possible  delay.  The  notification  probably  went  astray, 
since  you  did  not  get  it.  The  goods  were  sent  on  Octo- 
ber 13  and  the  bill  of  lading  mailed  on  October  15. 

191.  The  type  of  the  above  paragraph  is  called  the  nar- 
rative order  of  paragraph.     In  it  the  facts  are  given  in  the 
order  of  their  occurrence. 

192.  The  descriptive  order  in  the  paragraph  tries  to  re- 
produce  the   sensations   that   come   through   sight,   hearing, 
taste,  touch,  and  smell,  and  also  the  emotions  and  percep- 
tions.    It  deals  with  appearances,  not  actions. 

Example:  If  you  contemplate  purchasing  any  operating 
tables  we  respectfully  suggest  that  you  consider  par- 
ticularly the  Universal,  which  is  illustrated  on  pages 
10  and  II.  This  is  the  simplest  operating  table  con- 
structed. It  is  built  to  withstand  the  hardest  usage  and 
there  is  no  complicated  mechanism  to  get  out  of  order. 
You  will  notice  that  the  top  is  of  a  new  substance,  called 
Wicalloy.  Nicalloy  is  a  hard,  solid  metal  that  does  not 
break  like  glass,  does  not  stain  like  white  enameled 
iron  or  steel  and  does  not  chip  like  porcelain  enameled 


COHERENCE  IN  THE  PARAGRAPH  77 

iron  or  steel.  It  is  unaffected  by  any  of  the  liquids  used 
in  the  operating  room.  It  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  keep 
it  always  shining  with  the  lustre  of  fine  old  silverware. 

Emerging  at  the  Third  Floor  from  the  elevator  on  the 
Madison  Avenue  side  of  the  store,  one  finds  oneself  directly 
in  the  Fur  Department.  Spacious,  well  arranged  and 
equipped,  the  rich  tones  of  the  handsome  furs  displayed  on 
forms  and  in  show  cases  present  an  artistic  contrast  with 
the  soft  Quaker  gray  of  the  carpet  and  woodwork.  This 
department  not  improperly  may  be  termed  the  most  at- 
tractive— as  it  has  also  been  quoted  as  the  most  extensive — 
retail  fur  department  in  America. 

193.  The  expository  type  of  paragraph  is  a  type  that 
explains.     It  sets  forth  underlying  principles. 

There  are  many  vital  reasons  why  an  Edison  Disc  Record 
cannot  be  played  creditably  on  any  other  than  the  instrument 
designed  for  it  by  Mr.  Edison.  In  the  first  place  the  music 
has  been  recorded  on  it  by  an  entirely  different  method. 
Other  discs  are  cut  by  the  lateral  or  side  process  while  the 
Edison  is  cut  by  the  up  and  down,  or  vertical  process.  Then 
again  it  is  recorded  150  threads  to  the  inch  instead  of  80 
threads  used  on  other  discs.  That  means  that  the  walls  of 
the  grooves  are  closer  together  on  the  Edison  and  not 
adapted  to  bear  the  strain  of  carrying  the  tone  arm.  In- 
variably where  an  attempt  is  made  to  use  an  Edison  Disc 
on  other  than  an  Edison  instrument  the  quality  of  the  tone 
is  impaired  and  the  record  rendered  unfit  for  subsequent  use. 

194.  The  argumentative  type   of  paragraph   is  a  type 
that  strives  to  win  others  over  to  the  reader's  view  of  a 
proposition. 

In  regard  to  the  point  that  you  raise  about  our  having 
indorsed  the  check  and  that  therefore  its  indorsement  will 
act  as  a  receipt  in  full  for  the  invoices  mentioned  on  the 
same  check,  we  should  like  to  say  that  we  do  not  think  that 


78  PARAGRAPH    STRUCTURE 

this  is  very  just.  Your  remittance  was  not  made  according 
to  the  terms.  We  supposed,  of  course,  that  this  was  simply 
a  clerical  error  and  that  when  called  to  your  attention  would 
be  immediately  adjusted.  Our  terms  are  the  same  to  all  our 
customers,  and  we,  like  all  other  well  regulated  houses,  wish 
to  have  settlement  made  accordingly.  May  we  ask  you  to 
think  this  over  and  decide  if  you  believe  we  should  accept 
your  remittance  as  made  because  we  are  unable  to  return 
your  check  to  you. 

195.  The  deductive  order  in  the  paragraph  begins  with 
a  general  statement  or  a  statement  of  the  general  idea  at 
stake  which  is  followed  by  details  and  illustrations.     It  may 
state  the  effect  and  then  the  causes.     It  has  great  attention 
value  and  the  thought  is  easily  read. 

Examples:  Bosch  Plugs  are  right  and  act  right.  Proof  of 
this  fact  is  in  the  showing  made  by  Bosch  Products  in 
the  recent  Vanderbilt  Cup  and  Grand  Prize  Races.  Both 
winners  and  EVERY  car  to  finish  used  Bosch  Plugs;  also 
the  Bosch  Magneto.  This  was  a  gruelling  test — more  heat 
was  present,  more  oil  was  used  and  greater  speed  was 
evident  than  you  ever  would  require — but  Bosch  Plugs 
stood  it. 

You  can't  forget  to  make  a  Colt  safe.  It  is  automatically 
locked  when  cocked.  It  is  then  ready  for  instant  use. 
It  is  then  positively  safe  against  accidental  discharge. 

196.  The  inductive  order  of  paragraphs  gives  the  con- 
crete or  specific  facts  first  and  ends  with  a  general  statement 
or  conclusion  drawn  from  them.     It  may  begin  with  causes 
and  end  with  the  effect.     It  is  used  to  convince  and  is  best 
adapted  to  readers  of  the  higher  classes. 

Examples:  Pantasote  is  not  injured  by  intense  cold.  It 
is  not  harmed  by  the  baking  sun.  It  is  not  damaged  by 


COHERENCE  IN  THE  PARAGRAPH       79 

the  spatters  of  road  oil  or  grease.     In  short,  it  is  espe- 
cially manufactured  for  outside  use. 

Look  back  of  the  bond  for  the  security  on  which  it  is 
based.  Consider  carefully  the  income  from  the  invest- 
ment. Learn  of  the  marketability  of  the  bond;  study  the 
possibility  of  appreciation.  Do  these  things,  and  you  have 
done  all  that  you  can  do  in  insuring  a  good  investment. 

197.  The  climactic  order  in  the  paragraph  places  facts 
and  statements  in  the  order  of  their  importance  with  the 
most  important  last.    This  secures  emphasis. 

Example:  This  newspaper  purposes  to  lead.  And  it  will 
lead  because  it  will  live.  It  will  lead  because  it  will  ever 
be  a  better  newspaper.  It  will  lead  because  it  will  always 
have  something  useful  to  do  for  an  army  of  men  and 
women  who  are  ever  growing  and  ever  advancing  their 
ideas. 

198.  The  amplifying  paragraph  is  a  paragraph  which 
develops  a  point  brought  out  in  a  previous  paragraph. 

.  .  .  There  are,  accordingly,  these  three  reasons  why  the 
dealer  wants  charge  customers:  (i)  Charge  customers  buy 
more  goods;  (2)  Charge  customers  buy  higher  priced 
goods;  (3)  Charge  customers  stick  to  the  store. 

The  first  of  the  three  reasons  why  the  retailer  desires  to 
have  charge  customers  is  that  the  charge  customers  buy 
more  goods.  This  means  that  in  many  cases  a  customer 
would  not  buy  articles  for  sale  because  he  has  not  enough 
money  with  him  at  the  time,  or  because  he  thinks  he  is 
spending  too  much  money.  If  he  were  a  charge  customer  he 
would  merely  say  "Charge  it"  and  would  not  realize  how 
much  he  was  buying. 

199.  A  topic  sentence  paragraph  is  a  paragraph  in  which 
the  idea  of  the  paragraph  is  usually  expressed  in  one  of  the 


80  PARAGRAPH   STRUCTURE 

sentences  of  the  paragraph.  This  sentence  is  called  the  topic 
sentence.  Often  it  is  the  first  sentence  in  the  paragraph. 
Sometimes  it  is  placed  last. 

Neither  do  I  advocate  a  study  of  abstract  principles  that 
bear  no  relation  to  practical  experience.  I  have  lived  long 
enough  to  appreciate  the  value  of  experience  and  the  futility 
of  pure  abstractions.  The  only  principles  on  which  I  would 
stake  a  penny's  worth  of  time  or  money  are  those  that  are 
based  directly  on  experience — not  necessarily  on  my  own 
experience,  however,  but  on  the  experience  of  others  as  well. 
Such  principles  are  in  reality  simply  condensed  experience. 

The  lawyer  may  know  how  to  get  money,  but  his  way  of 
getting  it  is  like  killing  the  bees  to  get  the  money.  The 
lawyer — with  all  due  respect  to  his  professional  skill — is  not 
a  painless  operator  when  it  comes  to  extracting  money  from 
delinquent  debtors.  Flourishing  the  lash  of  the  law  he 
makes  his  demand  for  payment  in  cold,  unfeeling  terms 
which  are  sure  to  arouse  antagonism.  The  element  of  sales- 
manship has  no  place  in  his  method  of  making  collections. 
Legal  measures,  therefore,  to  enforce  payment  should  be 
taken  only  as  a  last  resort. 

200.  In  the  preceding  sections  certain  types  of  para- 
graphs have  been  defined  and  illustrated.  The  main  reason 
that  these  different  types  should  be  used  is  that  each  of  them 
has  a  particular  use  in  making  reading  easy  for  the  reader. 
Some  order  and  method  of  presentation  in  the  paragraph 
should  be  used,  for  if  the  idea  is  presented  in  a  logical  order 
the  brain  of  the  reader  comprehends  it  quickly.  Moreover, 
the  writer  must  know  the  chief  aim  of  his  piece  of  writing. 
Whether  this  piece  of  writing  is  to  be  called  description,  nar- 
ration, exposition,  or  argument  depends  upon  its  chief  aim. 


EMPHASIS    IN   THE   PARAGRAPH  81 

If  the  writer  aims  to  explain,  his  use  of  description,  narra- 
tion, and  argument  should  be  kept  subordinate  to  the  main 
purpose  aimed  at. 

Emphasis  in  the  Paragraph 

201.  Emphasis,    of    special    importance    in    sales-letter 
writing,  depends  on  proportion  and  position.     Ideas  that  are 
important  can  be  shown  to  be  important  by  the  amount  of 
space  they  occupy  in  the  paragraph. 

202.  The  beginning  and  end  of  a  paragraph  are  the  two 
most  important  positions  in  the  paragraph.     See  that  they 
are  filled  with  sentences  that  contain   the  most  important 
ideas  expressed  in  the  most  effective  words. 

203.  A  very  short  sentence  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph 
frequently  secures  emphasis.    This  sentence  is  usually  a  sum- 
mary sentence. 

Example:  Don't  hesitate  to  make  definite  arrangements 
for  this  service  on  account  of  any  distance  considera- 
tion. A  large  number  of  clients  come  a  long  distance 
for  Royal  Service.  They  find  it  worth  their  while.  So 
will  you. 

204.  A  sentence  or  a  short  passage  can  be  made  espe- 
cially  emphatic   by   being   paragraphed    separately.      (Rule 
162.) 

Example:  She  learns  all  its  good  points  and  you  fortify 
her  with  facts  and  evidence  about  the  superiority  of  our 
silk  and  the  weak  points  of  other  silk.  When  she  is 
ready  to  buy  silk,  she  will  want  our  silk  and  no  other. 
All  this  information  she  will  remember  and  will  be  ready 
to  impart  it  to  anyone  who  even  mentions  silk. 
Think  what  this  will  mean  to  your  store. 


V.    DICTION 

The   Correct    Use   of   Words 

205.  The   selection   of   the   right   word   for   the   right 
place  is  of  special  importance  to  the  business  man   in  his 
written  work  because  the  chief  tools  by  which  he  secures 
results  are  words.    The  words  he  uses  should  be  understood 
by  his  readers,  and  should  hold  their  interest,  secure  their 
confidence,  and  win  their  response. 

206.  The  business  writer  should  have  at  his  command 
such  a  vocabulary  that  he  need  not  grope  or  fumble   for 
words  while  he  is  writing  or  dictating  his  thoughts,  because 
if  he  is  compelled  continually  to  search  for  words,  he  cannot 
hope   to   avoid   a   forced   and   unnatural   expression   of   his 
thought. 

207.  In  the  revision  of  written  work,  certain  principles 
are  helpful  in  bringing  about  the  most  efficient  use  of  words. 
The  principles  given  below,  if  applied,  will  give  to  business 
diction  the  desired  correctness,  clearness,  and  force. 

208.  Avoid  words  not  in  good  use.    A  word  is  in  good 
use  when  it  is  etymologically  correct  and  when  it  is  also 
reputable,  national,  and  present. 

209.  A  word  is  reputable  when  it  is  used  by  the  ma- 
jority of  the  best  writers  and  speakers. 

a.    Avoid  vulgarisms,   for  they  create  an  unfavorable  im- 
pression   of    the   writer   using   them.     Examples :    pants, 
gents,  ain't,  enthuse,  everywheres,  tasty,  etc. 
82 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  83 

b.  Use  words  only  in  their  correct  sense;  otherwise  they 
will  convey  a  different  meaning  from  that  intended.     Ex- 
amples:  aggravate   (for  vex);  shall  (for  will);  transpire 
(for  happen),  etc. 

c.  Avoid    confounding   words    that   are   spelled   or   sound 
somewhat    alike.      Examples :    canvas,    canvass;    counsel, 
council;  advice,  advise;  suspect,  expect. 

d.  Avoid   slang.     Examples:    "You   should   worry   if   you 
have  our  address";  "This  is  a  pipe  of  a  proposition";  "It 
is  a  cinch  that  we  nail  your  order." 

210.  A  word  is  national  when  it  is  understood  in  its 
true  sense  by  all  readers. 

a.  Do  not  use  provincial  words,  for  they  will  be  understood 
only   by    readers    in   certain   localities.      Examples :    tote, 
perk  up,  homesteader,  and  sightly. 

b.  Technical  wording  should  not  be  used  except  in  com- 
munications   to    readers    who    understand    those    words. 
Examples:  champ fer,  bevel,  countersink  (from  carpenter's 
trade)  ;    tort,   easement,   bailor    (from   law)  ;    em,   point, 
pica  (printing  trade)  ;  dull,  easy,  bearish,  bullish,  heavy,  off 
(from  the  financial  vocabulary). 

211.  A  word  is  present  when  it  has  been  adopted  into 
modern  use. 

a.  Do  not  use  obsolete  words,  for  they  are  likely  not  to  be 
understood  by  the  reader.     Examples:  gotten   (for  got), 
quoth   (for  said),  foreword   (for  preface),  proven    (for 
proved),  and  amongst  (for  among). 

b.  Do  not  use  newly  coined  words,  for  they  show  bad  taste. 
Examples:    hike,    bosarty     (from    beaux    arts),    combine 
(used  as  a  noun),  suicide  (used  as  a  verb),  and  speedo- 
like. 


84  DICTION 

2121  Avoid  the  use  of  the  intensive  pronouns,  myself, 
himself,  yourself,  and  so  forth,  unless  used  for  emphasis. 
Do  not  be  afraid  to  use  /. 

Wrong:  The  Secretary  and  myself  will  represent  the  cor- 
poration at  the  meeting. 

Right:  The  Secretary  and  7  will  represent  the  corporation 
at  the  meeting. 

213.  Do  not  use  they  in  the  indefinite  sense. 

Crude :  Waterbury  ought  to  be  a  good  field,  for  they  manu- 
facture brass  there. 

Better:  Waterbury  ought  to  be  a  good  field,  since  brass  is 
manufactured  there. 

214.  Do  not  use  it  in  the  indefinite  sense. 

Crude:  In  your  advertisement  it  says  that  you  will  send  a 
sample. 

Better :  In  your  advertisement  you  say  that  you  will  send  a 
sample. 

Crude:  In  the  policy  it  reads  that  there  can  be  no  revoca- 
tion after  one  year. 

Better :  The  policy  reads  that  there  can  be  no  revocation 
after  one  year. 

Exceptions:  impersonal  expressions,  as,  it  seems,  it  is  hot, 
it  appears. 

215.  Avoid  the   following  hackneyed  and  characterless 
expressions : 

Your  favor  of  the  I5th  instant  to  hand  and  in  reply  would 

say.    .     .    . 
Yours  of  the  2nd  ultimo  at  hand.     .    .    . 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  WORDS  85 

Your  esteemed  favor  of  the  8th  received.    .    .    . 

We  beg  leave  to.  ...  We  beg  to  remain.  .  .  .  We 
beg  to  state.  .  .  .  Believe  me 

Hoping  to  hear  from  you  soon,  we  are.     .    .    . 

Thanking  you  in  advance.     .     .     .     And  oblige.     .    .     . 

We  are  enclosing  herewith.  .  .  .  Please  find  en- 
closed. .  .  . 

Answering  yours  of  the  loth  inst.  we  beg  leave  to 
say.  .  .  . 

Concerning  yours  of  the  I2th  ultimo.     .    .    . 

Referring  to  yours  of  even  date.     .     .     . 

Do  not  use  "ultimo"  or  "ult.",  "instant"  or  "inst.",  "approx- 
imo"  or  "app.",  but  always  use  the  name  of  the  month: 
e.  g.,  January  5;  not,  the  5th  ultimo. 

216.  Contractions  may  be  used  in  all  cases  except  in 
formal  and  dignified  compositions.     Examples:  can't,  won't, 
isn't,  haven't. 

217.  Avoid  the  use  of  long  and  unusual  words;  they 
cannot  be  so  easily  understood  as  short  words.     Example: 
"This  soap  is  composed  entirely  of  natural  saponaceous  in- 
gredients of  the  highest  emollient  and  detergent  properties." 

218.  Avoid  pretentious  expressions.     Examples:     "May 
I  venture  to  obtrude" ;  "I  hope  that  you  will  acquit  me  of 
any  seeming  indelicacy  or  obtrusiveness  for  encroaching  upon 
your  valuable  time  in  the  capacity  of  an  entire  stranger." 

219.  Avoid  general  and  unspecific  words;  they  do  not 
impress  the  reader.     Be  specific.     Examples:  highest-grade, 
first-class,  and  best.     (See  Best,  page  93.) 


86  DICTION 

220.  Specific  words  should  be  used  instead  of  general 
words,  since  they  call  to  the  mind  a  definite  image. 

Unspecific:     Our   product   made   a   remarkable   showing  at 

the  last  contest. 
Specific:     Our  typewriting  machine  won  three  first  prizes 

at  the  typewriting  contest  held  in  New  York  City,  June 

24,  1914. 

Unspecific:  This  underfeed  furnace  saved  in  coal  for  one 
man  a  large  sum.  \ 

Specific :  This  Fitch  underfeed  furnace  saved  50  per  cent, 
in  coal  for  Mr.  R.  E.  Dickinson,  of  12  Fifth  St.,  Cin- 
cinnati. 

221.  Avoid  the  use  of  words  of  unpleasant  or  negative 
suggestion. 

Unpleasant  suggestion:     We  have  received  your  complaint 

letter  dated  January  5. 
Better :     We   were  glad  to   receive   your   candid   letter   of 

Jan.  5. 
Unpleasant  suggestion:     You  claim  in  your  letter  that  the 

table  was  scratched  when  you  received  it. 
Better:      From    your    letter    we    learn   that   the    table    was 

scratched  when  you  received  it. 

Superfluous  Words 

222.  The  use  of  superfluous  words,   as  distinct   from 
superfluous    details   or    ideas,    may   take    any   one   of   three 
forms:  redundancy,  or  the  use  of  needless  words;  tautology, 
or  a  direct  repetition  of  the  thought;  verbosity,  or  such  a 
superfluity  of  words  that  condensation  means  complete  re- 
writing. 


SUPERFLUOUS  WORDS  8T 

223.  Avoid  redundancy,  as  it  obscures  the  thought. 

Bad:     However,  notwithstanding  this  fact  it  seems  to  me 

that   the   final  part   of   this   problem   should   be   entirely 

eliminated. 
Better:     In  spite  of  this  fact,  I  think  the  final  part  of  the 

problem  should  be  eliminated. 
Bad:     There  are  several  of  these  questions  that  have  been 

gathered  together  and  to  which  we  must  pay  our  attention 

at  once. 
Better:     Several  of  these  questions  have  been  gathered  and 

demand  immediate  attention. 

224.  Avoid  tautology;  it  wearies  the  reader  and  fails 
to  impress. 

Bad:  Your  filing  system  is  poorly  and  inefficiently  ar- 
ranged and  by  this  inefficient  arrangement  it  loses 
efficiency. 

Better :  The  poor  arrangement  of  your  filing  system  causes 
it  to  be  inefficient. 

225.  Avoid  verbosity;  it  is  neither  economical  nor  ef- 
fective. 

Bad:  Realizing  that  your  business  requires  more  prompt 
attention,  and  that  I  can  personally  serve  you  to  better 
advantage,  both  in  the  question  of  prices  and  delivery, 
through  the  medium  of  this  company,  I  respectfully  re- 
quest for  same,  the  consideration  of  me  personally,  which 
you  so  generously  favored  me  with,  as  representative  of 
the  concerns  I  have  recently  been  associated  with. 

Better:  As  I  can  give  you  better  prices  and  quicker  de- 
livery in  my  present  employment,  than  in  my  previous 
employment,  I  ask  that  you  continue  to  do  business 
with  me. 


88  DICTION 

Prepositions 

226.  Many  mistakes  are  made  in  the  use  of  prepositions. 
Consider  carefully  the  following  brief  list   of  words  with 
the  appropriate  preposition  to  be  used  with  each: 

agree  with  (a  person)  dependent  on 

agree  to  (a  proposition)  differ  from  (person  or  thing) 

bestow  upon  differ  with  (in  opinion) 

compare  with  (to  determine  different  fro?n 

value)  glad  of 

compare  to  (because  of  simi-  need  of 

larity)  part  from  (a  person) 

comply  with  part  with  (a  thing) 

confide  in  (to  trust  in)  profit  by 

confide  to  (to  intrust  to)  prohibit  from 

confer  on  (to  give,  to  talk  reconcile  to  (a  person) 

about)  reconcile  wi th  (a  statement) 

confer  with  (to  talk  with)  scared  by 

convenient  to  (a  place)  think  of  or  about 
convenient  for  (a  purpose) 

Figures  of  Speech 

227.  Figures  of  speech  are  used  ( i )  to  make  the  thought 
clearer   and  more  forceful,   and    (2)    to  make  the  thought 
more  agreeable  or  attractive. 

228.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  simile  or  metaphor  that  makes 
an  incongruous  figure  or  is  incongruously  literal. 

Bad:     He  is  the  only  man  in  the  organization  who  is  able 

to  steer  it  on  its  march  to  success. 
Good:     He  is  the  only  man  in  the  organization  who  is  able 

to  guide  it  on  its  march  to  success. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  89 

Bad:  The  war  that  has  been  waged  on  fraudulent  adver- 
tising has  reached  the  goal  of  success. 

Good :  The  war  that  has  been  waged  on  fraudulent  adver- 
tising has  been  successful. 

Bad:  This  article  has  passed  through  the  fire  of  long  tests 
and  is  now  ripe  for  exploitation. 

(The  first  figure,   "passed  through  the  fire",   is  incon- 
gruous with  the  second  figure,  "is  now  ripe.") 

Good :  This  article  has  passed  through  the  fire  of  long  tests 
and  is  now  ready  for  exploitation. 

229.  Avoid  blending  the  literal  with  the  metaphorical. 

Bad:  Upon  entering  the  store,  his  eye  was  struck  by  the 
new  fixture. 

(The  figure,  "was  struck",  is  too  literal.) 
Good:    Upon  entering  the  store,  he  saw  the  new  fixture. 

Bad:  He  threw  his  whole  soul  and  the  $5,000  his  aunt  had 
given  him  into  the  new  campaign. 

(In   such   cases   as   this,   it   is   necessary   to   recast  the 
entire  sentence.) 

Recast:  He  entered  heartily  into  the  campaign  and  con- 
tributed to  it  the  $5,000  his  aunt  had  given  him. 

230.  Avoid  figures  of  speech  that  have  unpleasant  or 
negative  suggestion,  or  are  not  apt. 

Bad :    We  are  as  full  of  hosiery  as  an  egg  is  full  of  meat. 
Bad:      Our   business    reputation   is   as    clean   as    a   hound's 

tooth. 
Bad :    Chew  Arrowmint  and  you  will  have  a  breath  as  sweet 

as  a  cow's. 


90  DICTION 

Miscellaneous  Faulty  Expressions 

231.  There  are  certain  words  and  expressions  fre- 
quently misused.  The  following  list  contains  the  ones  most 
commonly  met  with. 

A,  an.  The  form  an  is  used  before  vowel  sounds;  the 
form  a,  before  consonant  sounds.  The  sound  of  the 
first  letter  of  a  word  must  be  noticed,  for  a  consonant 
is  eften  silent  and  the  word  really  begins  with  a  vowel 
sound ;  on  the  other  hand,  some  letters  may  be  either 
vowels  or  consonants,  according  to  their  position,  and 
hence  the  word  may  begin  seemingly  with  a  vowel, 
but  actually  begins  with  a  consonant.  Examples:  a 
youth's  suit,  a  union  suit,  an  honor,  such  a  one,  a  hum- 
ble letter. 

Accept,  except.  Accept  means  to  receive;  as,  "They  ac- 
cepted the  goods."  Except  (verb)  means  to  exclude; 
as,  "We  want  you  to  except  the  last  clause  of  this  con- 
tract." Except  (preposition)  means  with  the  exception 
of]  as,  "We  found  everything  except  the  box  of  lace." 
Advise.  This  word  is  used  to  excess  in  business  letters.  It 
implies  giving  advice;  as,  "We  advise  you  to  sell  out 
at  once." 

Affect,  effect.  Affect  means  to  influence;  as,  "The  price 
of  our  material  was  greatly  affected  by  this  rumor." 
Effect  (verb)  means  to  accomplish,  to  bring  about,  to 
cause;  as,  "This  new  system  will  effect  a  great  saving." 
Effect  (noun)  means  result;  as,  "The  effect  of  the  dis- 
solution was  immediately  felt."  Affect  is  never  used  as 
a  noun.  Effect  is  used  both  as  a  verb  and  as  a  noun. 


MISCELLANEOUS    FAULTY    EXPRESSIONS         91 

Aggravate  should  never  be  used  for  annoy,  vex,  or  exas- 
perate. It  means  to  make  worse;  as,  "His  financial 
difficulties  were  aggravated  by  this  failure." 

All  ready,  already.  Already  is  an  adverb  and  means  by 
this  time;  as,  "When  I  had  arrived,  the  business  had 
already  been  completed."  All  ready,  an  adjective 
phrase,  means  ready,  prepared  In  every  particular;  as, 
"We  are  all  ready  to  begin  negotiations  with  you." 

All  right  should  never  be  written  alright. 

Almost,  most.  Almost  should  be  used  as  an  adverb;  most 
as  an  adjective  or  a  noun.  "Most  all  the  employees 
reported"  is  incorrect.  Write  ffAl?nost  all  the  employees, 
reported,"  or  "Most  of  the  employees  reported."  (Most 
is  also  used  as  an  adverb  to  form  the  superlative.) 

Alternative,  choice.  Alternative  means  the  choice  of  only 
two  things.  Write,  "One  of  three  courses" — not  "One 
of  three  alternatives."  "He  was  given  his  alternative 
of  these  two  things."  "He  had  his  choice  of  five  sam- 
ples at  the  same  price." 

Among,  between.  Among  is  used  in  referring  to  more 
than  two  things ;  between  in  referring  to  two  only. 
"The  dissension  among  the  five  firms  arose  over  a  mat- 
ter of  rebating."  "The  differences  between  the  two 
departments  were  soon  settled." 

Amount  should  not  be  used  for  number.  Do  not  say,  "A 
large  amount  of  people  came  to  the  store." 


92  DICTION 

Any  place,  anywhere.  Any  place  should  be  written  any- 
where; as,  "He  could  not  find  the  letter  anywhere"  not 
"He  could  not  find  the  letter  any  place" 

Appreciate  means  to  estimate  justly  or  to  value  highly. 
It  should  not  be  modified  by  greatly  or  very  much.  "I 
very  much  appreciate  the  favor  you  have  done  me"  is 
incorrect. 

Apt,  liable,  likely.  Apt  indicates  natural  inclination  or 
habitual  tendency;  as,  Office  forces,  without  a  strong 
manager,  are  apt  to  Become  disorganized."  Liable  has 
the  suggestion  of  danger ;  as,  "By  breaking  the  contract 
he  has  become  liable  for  damages."  Likely  indicates 
simply  probability ;  as,  "It  is  likely  to  rain  to-morrow" ; 
not  "It  is  apt  to  rain  to-morrow." 

As...as,  so...as.  So.. as  is  used  in  negative  statements 
rather  than  as.. as.  Example:  "The  catalogues  are 
not  so  handsome  as  you  said  they  would  be." 

As,  like.  'As  is  the  correct  word  when  a  verb  follows  or" 
is  understood  to  follow.  "He  is  not  prompt  in  his  pay- 
ments like  we  are"  is  incorrect.  It  should  be,  "He  is 
not  prompt  in  his  payments  as  we  are!9  See  Like. 

As,  tHat.  "As  should  never  be  confused  with  that.  "We  do 
not  know  as  we  can  do  that"  is  incorrect. 

As  per  your  order.    Don't  use.     It  is  hackneyed  and  trite. 

At,  about.  Drop  the  at.  "The  letter  was  brought  in  at 
about  two  o'clock"  is  incorrect. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS         93 

Awful  should  not  be  used  loosely.  It  means  inspiring 
with  awe.  "He  made  an  awful  mistake"  is  incorrect. 

Badly  should  not  be  used  for  very  much  or  a  great  deal. 
"We  want  badly  to  have  you  come  in  to  see  us"  should 
read  "We  want  very  much  to  have  you  come  in  to 
see  us." 

Balance,  remainder,  rest.  Balance  means  equality.  It 
should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  of  remainder  or  rest;  as, 
"Kindly  send  the  balance  of  the  goods." 

Bank  on,  to  take  stock  in.  Slang  expressions  used  in  the 
sense  of  to  rely  on,  to  trust  in.  They  should  generally 
be  avoided. 

Beg  is  used  too  much  in  business  correspondence  and 
usually  not  correctly.  Avoid  using  it.  If  you  do  use 
beg,  it  should  be  followed  by  leave  or  permission.  "I 
beg  to  state"  is  incorrect;  "I  beg  leave  to  state"  is  cor- 
rect; "I  beg  permission  to  go"  is  correct. 

Besides,  beside.  Not  interchangeable.  Besides  means  in 
addition  to,  moreover ;  as  "Besides  this  inducement,  we 
can  offer  you  others."  Beside  means  near,  close  to;  as, 
"His  desk  is  beside  the  entrance." 

Best  has  little  value  now  as  a  word  because  it  has  so 
often  been  misused,  and  because  no  one  believes  it.  Be 
specific  in  your  claims.  "Our  goods  are  the  best  in 
the  world."  Tell  the  reader  in  what  respect  your 
goods  are  the  best;  for  what  purpose  they  are  best. 
Best  and  other  superlatives  do  not  tell  the  reader 
anything.  Do  not  use  them  often. 


94  DICTION 

Borrow  should  not  be  confused  with  lend.  "He  would  not 
borrow  me  the  money"  is  incorrect. 

Bound,  determine.  Bound  refers  to  outside  compulsion. 
Determine  means  a  decision  made  by  a  person.  "We 
are  not  bound  by  law  to  pay  this  debt,  but  we  are  de- 
termined to  do  so." 

Bring,  carry,  fetch,  take.  These  words  have  different 
meanings.  Bring  suggests  motion  toward  the  speaker. 
"Bring  me  that  catalogue."  "Take  suggests  motion 
away  from  the  speaker.  "Take  these  books  from  my 
desk."  Fetch  suggests  going  away  from  the  speaker 
for  a  thing  and  returning  with  it.  Carry  suggests  an 
indefinite  motion. 

But  that,  but  what.  But  in  connection  with  that  is  often 
redundant  and  should  be  omitted.  "We  have  no  doubt 
but  that  you  have  overlooked  this  item"  should  be  "We 
have  no  doubt  that  you  have  overlooked  this  item." 
But  what  is  properly  used  when  the  meaning  is  but  that 
which.  "I  don't  know  but  what  this  suit  is  as  good  as 
that  one"  is  incorrect.  "He  described  the  matter  in 
detail,  but  what  I  said  was  not  important,"  is  correct. 

Can,  may.  Can  denotes  power  or  ability  and  should  not  be 
used  for  may  which  denotes  permission. 

Wrong:     Can  I  forward  these  suits  to  you? 
Right:    May  I  forward  these  suits  to  you? 

Cannot  but.  This  expression  should  not  be  used  inter- 
changeably with  can  but  as  the  two  expressions  differ 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS         95 

in  meaning.  The  expression  "We  can  but  try"  means 
"All  we  can  do  is  to  try."  uWe  cannot  but  try"  means 
"We  cannot  help  trying." 

Can't  seem  is  a  vulgarism.  Write  "seem  unable"  or  "do 
not  seem  able." 

Wrong:    I  can't  seem  to  get  it. 
Right :    I  seem  unable  to  get  it. 

Capacity,  ability.  Capacity  means  the  power  of  receiv- 
ing. It  has  reference  to  the  receptive  powers.  "He 
has  the  capacity  to  learn."  Ability  means  the  power  to 
perform,  to  do.  It  has  reference  to  the  active  exercise 
of  our  faculties.  "He  has  the  ability  to  do  this  work." 

Continual  means  frequently  repeated  actions  and  should 
not  be  confused  with  continuous,  which  means  uninter- 
rupted action. 

Right:     Continual  early  sales  depressed  the  price  of 
the  stock. 

Couldn't  seem.     See  Can't  seem. 

Council,  counsel.  Council  indicates  a  group  of  persons 
who  take  counsel.  Counsel  means  advice  or  a  legal 
advisor. 

Custom,  habit.  Custom  means  an  action  voluntarily  re- 
peated. Habit  means  a  tendency  to  repeat  a  certain 
action  without  volition. 

Deal  is  a  vulgarism  for  transaction,  arrangement,  or  agree- 
ment. 


96  DICTION 

Definite,  definitive.  Definite  means  well  defined.  Defini- 
tive means  final. 

Different  than.  "Our  paint  is  different  than  all  others" 
is  incorrect.  It  should  read  "Our  paint  is  different  from 
all  others."  Different  should  not  be  completed  by  a 
than  clause,  but  always  by  a  from  phrase. 

Differ  from,  differ  with.  Persons,  things,  and  opinions 
differ  from  each  other;  persons  differ  in  opinion  with 
each  other.  "I  differ  from  himNin  attitude,  but  I  do 
not  differ  with  him  in  regard  to  the  final  action." 

Demean  means  to  behave  one's  self  and  should  not  be 
used  for  debase  or  degrade. 

Directly  is  often  misused  for  as  soon  as;  as,  "Directly  we 
receive  your  order  we  shall  ship  it."  This  should  read 
"As  soon  as  we  receive  your  order,  we  shall  ship  it." 

Disagree  is  generally  followed  by  with  instead  of  from. 
"He  disagreed  with  me  over  the  terms  of  the  contract." 

Don't  is  a  contraction  of  do  not;  therefore,  it  is  ungram- 
matical  when  used  with  a  subject  in  the  third  person 
singular.  One  may  say  "I  don't''  but  not  "He  don't!' 
Say,  "He  doesn't." 

Due  to   should   not  be   used   unless  due  modifies  a   noun. 
Wrong:     Due  to  this  cause  our  factory  has  been  de- 
layed in  making  up  your  order. 

Right :     On  account  of  this  cause  our  factory  has  been 
delayed  in  making  up  this  order. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS         97 

Each,  every,  "Each  of  the  employees  was  paid  off." 
"Every  one  of  the  hands  has  received  his  pay." 

Each  other  should  not  be  used  for  one  another.  Each 
other  should  not  be  used  unless  each  member  of  a  group 
is  represented  as  in  a  certain  relation  to  every  other 
member. 

Wrong:     The  changes  in  the  style  of  cloaks  to  be 

worn  next  year  are  rapidly  following  each  other. 

Right :    The  changes  in  the  style  of  cloaks  to  be  worn 

next  year  are  rapidly  following  one  another. 
Right:    The  two  members  of  the  firm  are  very  much 

devoted  to  each  other. 
Right:     In  this  crisis  we  have  decided  to  stand  by 

each  other. 

(Each  member  of  the  group  governed  by  the  word 
we  has  decided  to  stand  by  every  other  member.) 

Effect.     See  Affect. 

Either,  neither.  Either  and  neither  should  not  be  used 
to  designate  more  than  two  persons  or  things.  To 
designate  one  of  three  or  more,  write  #723;  one  or  none. 

Wrong:  The  firm  directed  three  of  its  salesmen  to 
report  on  Friday,  but  neither  of  them  came  in. 

Right:  The  firm  directed  three  of  its  salesmen  to  re- 
port on  Friday,  but  none  of  them  came  in. 

Else.     "Somebody  else's  desk;  not  somebody's  else  desk." 
Every  place  should  be  written  everywhere. 

Enormity,  enormousness.  Enormity  has  reference  to 
moral  quality;  enormousness  to  size. 


98  DICTION 

Right:     He  does  not  realize  the  enormity  of  his  crime. 
Right :     The  enormousness  of  the  undertaking  did  not 
affect  them. 

Exceptional,  exceptionable.  Exceptional  describes  a  case 
outside  of  the  operation  of  a  rule.  Exceptionable  is 
that  which  is  imperfect,  subject  to  corrections  and 
exceptions. 

Expect,  suppose,  suspect.  Expect  looks  toward  the 
future. 

Wrong:     We   expect  that  you  have  already  written 

to  us. 
Right:     We  suppose  that  you  have   already  written 

to  us. 

Suspect  indicates  distrust. 
Wrong:     We  suspect  that  the  goods  have  arrived  by 

this  time. 
Right:    We  suspect  this  man  of  dishonesty. 

Excellent  should  not  be  qualified ;  it  is  a  superlative. 

Wrong:    This  proposition  is  most  excellent. 
Right:     This  proposition  is  excellent. 

Except    (verb).    See  Accept. 

Except  (preposition).  Should  not  be  used  as  a  con- 
junction. 

Wrong:     The  shippers  won't  do  that  except  you  ask 

them. 
Right:     The  shippers  won't  do  that  unless  you  ask 

them. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS         99 


Farther,  further.  Farther  refers  to  distance;  further  to 
that  which  is  more  or  additional.  "We  wrote  nothing 
further."  "He  is  farther  from  his  source  of  supply 
than  any  other  dealer." 

Former,  latter.  Former  and  latter  should  not  be  used 
to  designate  one  of  more  than  two  persons  or  things. 
For  designating  one  of  three  or  more,  say  "first,"  "first- 
named,"  or  "last,"  "last-named." 

Few,  less.  Few  refers  to  numbers;  less  to  quantity.  "No 
firm  had  fewer  friends  than  they"  (not  less  friends). 

Find,  locate.  Find  means  to  come  upon  by  seeking. 
Locate  means  to  set  in  a  particular  place. 

Wrong:     I  could  not  locate  you  in  your  office  yes- 
terday. 

Right :     I  could  not  find  you  in  your  office  yesterday. 
Right:    We  shall  locate  our  store  in  New  Haven. 

Fine  is  indefinite  in  meaning.     Avoid  using  it.     See  Best. 

Got  is  very  often  misused.  "What  has  that  got  to  do  with 
it?"  should  be  "What  has  that  to  do  with  it?"  "We 
have  got  to  leave"  should  be  "We  are  obliged  to  leave." 
"Have  you  got  time?"  should  be  "Have  you  time?" 
"I  have  got  your  order"  is  correct  because  it  means  I 
have  secured  your  order.  Got  should,  therefore,  not  be 
used  unless  the  intended  meaning  is  secured. 

Gotten  is  an  obsolete  form.     Say  got. 


100  DICTION 

Guess  is  often  misused  for  think,  suppose,  except,  etc. 

Wrong:    I  guess  that  we  shall  arrive  about  noon. 
Right :    I  think  that  we  shall  arrive  about  noon. 

Had  ought.     Ought  is  never  used  with  an  auxiliary. 

Wrong:    He  had  ought  to  have  written. 
Right:    He  ought  to  have  written. 

Hanged,  hung.  Hanged  should  be  used  in  reference  only 
to  an  execution. 

Wrong :  Many  pictures  had  been  hanged  in  the  dis- 
play window. 

Right:  Many  pictures  had  been  hung  in  the  display 
window. 

Have,  got.     See  Got. 

Healthy,  healthful,  wholesome.  A  healthy  man;  a 
healthful  place ;  wholesome  food. 

If  should  never  be  used  in  the  sense  of  whether. 

Wrong :    I  have  not  heard  if  I  can  give  you  that  price. 
Right:    I  have  not  heard  whether  I  can  give  you  that 
price. 

Implies,  infers.  Implies  means  virtually  includes  or  vir- 
tually means,  as,  "Your  attitude  implies  that  you 
desire  to  break  your  contract."  Infer  means  to  conclude, 
to  deduce,  as,  "I  infer  from  your  attitude  that  you 
desire  to  break  your  contract." 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS       101 

In.  Generally  incorrect  when  used  to  express  motion.  Use 
into. 

Wrong:    We  got  him  just  as  he  stepped  in  the  store. 
Right:    We  got  him  just  as  he  stepped  into  the  store. 

Infers.     See  Implies. 

Inside  of.  In  expressions  of  time  say  within;  as  "This 
will  be  shipped  within  four  days''  (not  "inside  of  four 
days.") 

Its,  it's.  The  possessive  pronoun  is  its.  It's  is  the  ab- 
breviation of  it  is. 

Kind,  sort,  are  singular.  Do  not  say  "We  don't  keep  any 
stock  in  those  kind  of  engines." 

Kind  of,  sort  of  ( i )  should  not  be  followed  by  a  or  an. 

Wrong :    That  kind  of  an  engine  we  do  not  keep. 
Right :    That  kind  of  engine  we  do  not  keep. 
Wrong :    What  sort  of  a  man  is  he  ? 
Right :    What  sort  of  man  is  he  ? 

Kind  of,  sort  of  (2)  should  not  be  used  to  modify  verbs 
or  adjectives;  say  "somewhat,"  "somehow,"  or  "rather." 

Wrong:     Business  is  sort  of  quiet  for  us. 
Right:     Business  is  somewhat  quiet  for  us. 

Lay,  lie,  are  frequently  confounded.  Lay  (to  put  down)  is 
transitive  and  takes  an  object.  Lie  (to  recline)  is  in- 


102  DICTION 

transitive -and  does  not  take  an  object.     The  principal 
parts  are: 

Present  Past  Perfect. 

I  lie  I  lay  I  have  lain. 

I  lay  I  laid  I  have  laid. 

Correct :     I  left  the  office  and  went  home  to  lie  down. 
He  laid  the  file  on  my  desk. 
Feeling  sick  he  lay  down. 
Feeling  tired  I  laid  the  books  on  the  table. 

Led,  lead.  Lead  is  commonly  misused  for  the  past  tense 
of  to  lead.  The  principal  parts  of  lead  are: 

Present  Past  Perfect 

I  lead  I   led  I  have  led. 

"Carney  led  (not  lead)  the  organization  in  the  amount 
sold." 

Liable.     See  Apt. 

Like  is  an  adjective,  and  means  similar  to;  as,  "The  sell- 
ing plan  was  like  one  of  which  we  had  heard  before," 
"He  is  like  the  old  Mr.  Arth."  Like  in  the  sense  of 
in  the  same  manner  as,  is  followed  by^a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun in  the  objective  case,  and  is  called  by  some  gram- 
marians an  adverb;  by  others,  a  preposition;  e.  g.,  "He 
writes  like  the  bookkeeper,"  "He  talks  like  me."  Like 
should  never  be  used  to  introduce  a  subject  with  a 
verb;  use  "as"  or  "as  if." 

Wrong:    Do  this  like  we  want  you  to  do  it. 
Right :    Do  this  as  we  want  you  to  do  it. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS       103 

Wrong:     Do  like  I  do. 
Right:     Do  as  I  do. 
Correct :     Write  like  him. 
Correct:    Write  as  he  does. 

Likely.     See  Apt. 

Line  (i).  Do  not  say  "line"  in  the  sense  of  kind  or  busi- 
ness. 

Wrong :  In  what  line  of  business  are  you  now  work- 
ing? 

Right:  In  what  kind  of  business  are  you  now  work- 
ing? 

Line  (2).  Avoid  the  use  of  "line"  as  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing expressions: 

Wrong:    Do  you  keep  anything  in  the  brass  line? 
Wrong:     I  do  not  want  anything  in  the  advice  line 

from  you. 
Right:    I  do  not  want  any  advice  from  you. 

Lose,  loose.  Loose  is  commonly  misused  for  lose;  as,v  "If 
we  loose  (lose)  this  sale  you  are  to  blame."  Loose 
means  to  untie,  to  set  free. 

Lot  means  a  distinct  part  or  parcel,  and  does  not  mean 
a  great  number. 

Wrong:     We  know  a  lot  of  business  houses  who  will 

use  your  appliance. 
Right:     We  know  a  number  of  business  houses  who 

will  use  your  appliance. 


104  DICTION 

Might  of.     See  Of. 

Miss  when  used  as  a  title  must  be  followed  by  the  name. 

Wrong:     My  dear  Miss. 
Right:    My  dear  Miss  Smith. 

Most.     See  Almost. 
Must.     See  Of. 

Near  should  not  be  used  for  nearly. 

Wrong:    The  final  returns  from  this  bond  will  be  not 

near  so  much  as  from  the  other. 
Right:    The  final  returns  from  this  bond  will  be  not 

nearly  so  much  as  from  the  other. 

Of.  Could  of,  may  of,  might  of,  must  of,  should  of,  and 
would  of  are  illiterate  vulgarisms  for  could  have,  may 
have,  might  have,  must  have,  should  have,  and  would 
have. 

Off  of.     The  "of"  is  unnecessary. 

Wrong :  When  we  took  the  cover  off  of  the  box  we 
noticed  that  the  contents  seemed  to  be  damaged. 

Right:  When  we  took  the  cover  off  the  box  we  no- 
ticed that  the  contents  seemed  to  be  damaged. 

One.     "Not  a  one  returned  to  work."     Omit  the  "a." 

Ones.    Do  not  say  the  ones,  say  those. 

Wrong:     The  ones  we  have  received  are  shop-worn. 
Right:     Those  we  have  received  are  shop-worn. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS       105 

Only  is  very  commonly  misplaced,  so  that  the  real  mean- 
ing is  not  clear.  Place  only  next  to  the  word  or  phrase 
to  be  qualified. 

Examples:     He  only  signed  the  letter.     (He  did  not 

dictate  it.) 

He  signed  only  the  letter.     (He  did  not  sign  any- 
thing else.) 

Only  he  signed  the  letter.     (No  one  else  signed  it.) 
He  signed  the  letter  only.     (He  did  not  sign  any- 
thing else.) 

Ought.     See  Had. 

Party  means  a  person  or  group  of  persons  taking  part. 
It  is  incorrect  when  used  to  mean  simply  a  person. 

Wrong:     The   party   who   ordered   the   samples   was 

Fred  Jones. 
Right:     The   person   who   ordered   the   samples   was 

Fred  Jones 

Right:     The  contracting  parties  signed  the  lease. 
Right :    Each  party  to  the  contract  was  satisfied. 

Per  cent,  should  not  be  used  as  a  noun;  use  percentage. 

Wrong:    Of  those  present  only  a  small  per  cent,  were 

from  our  house. 
Right:    Of  those  present  only  a  small  percentage  were 

from  our  house. 

Plenty  is  incorrect  when  used  as  an  adverb. 

Wrong :    He  is  plenty  good  enough  for  us  and  should 

be  for  you. 
Right :    He  is  quite  good  enough  for  us  and  should  be 

for  you. 


106  DICTION 

Posted.  Use  inform  instead.  Ledgers  are  posted.  "He  is 
well  informed  (not  posted)  on  that  point." 

Prefer  should  be  completed  by  to,  above,  or  before;  not 
by  a  "than"  clause. 

Wrong :    We  prefer  to  deal  with  you  direct  than  with 

any  one  else. 
Right:     We  prefer  dealing  with  you  direct  to  dealing 

with  any  one  else. 

Practicable,  practical.  Use  practical  in  reference  to  per- 
sons who  show  skill,  practice,  knowledge,  or  experience ; 
as,  "A  practical  man."  When  practical  is  used  as  a 
thing  it  means  useful  as  opposed  to  theoretical;  as,  "He 
has  a  practical  experience  in  this  field."  Practicable  is 
not  used  of  persons  but  of  things  and  means  capable  of 
being  put  into  practice;  as,  "His  idea  is  practicable." 

Principal,  principle.  Principal  (noun)  means  a  leader  or 
chief ;  the  employer  of  one  who  acts  as  agent;  a  sum  on 
which  interest  accrues.  Principal  (adjective)  means 
highest  in  character,  rank,  or  importance.  Principle  is 
used  only  as  a  noun  and  means  a  general  truth,  informa- 
tion, or  belief. 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  the  correct  use  of 
these  words: 

The  principal  of  this  note  must  be  paid  by  January  8. 
He  is  the  principal  of  the  school. 

The  principal  man  whom  you  should  see  is  the  Secre- 
tary. 
It  is  the  principle  of  the  case,  which  interests  us. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS       107 

Provided,  providing.  Do  not  use  the  participle  providing 
(meaning  to  furnish)  in  place  of  the  conjunction  pro- 
vided (meaning  on  condition  that,  if). 

Wrong:    Providing  the  firm  is  willing,  I  shall  be  glad 

to  handle  that. 
Right :    Provided  the  firm  is  willing,  I  shall  be  glad  to 

handle  that. 

Proposition  means  a  thing  proposed  or  the  act  of  pro- 
posing. Do  not  use  for  work  or  task. 

Wrong:     To    handle    those    40    salesmen    is    a    hard 

proposition. 
Right:    To  handle  those  40  salesmen  is  a  hard  task. 

Proven  should  not  be  used  except  as  an  adjective;  otherwise 
use  proved* 

Quantity  should  not  DC  used  for  number. 

Wrong:  We  have  had  a  large  quantity  of  suits  re- 
turned to  us. 

Right :  We  have  had  a  large  number  of  suits  returned 
to  us. 

Quite  a  few  is  incorrectly  used  ror  a  good  many  or  a 
considerable  number. 

Quite  a  little  is  incorrectly  used  for  a  considerable  amount 
or  a  good  deal. 

Rarely  ever.    Do  not  use.    Say  rarely  or  hardly  ever, 

Wrong:    They  rarely  ever  act  as  agents. 
Right:     They  rarely  act  as  agents;  or,  They  hardly 
ever  act  as  agents. 


108  DICTION 

Real.     Do  not  use  for  very. 

Wrong:     We  consider  this  a  real  good  offer. 
Right:    We  consider  this  a  very  good  offer. 

Reason  is,  the.  Such  an  expression  as  the  reason  is 
should  not  be  completed  with  ( i )  a  because  of  phrase ; 
as,  "The  reason  he  did  not  agree  to  the  contract  was 
because  of  their  impatience,"  (2)  a  because  clause;  as, 
"The  reason  he  did  not  agree  to  the  contract  was  because 
they  were  impatient,"  (3)  a  due  to'  phrase;  as,  "The 
reason  he  did  not  agree  to  the  contract  was  on  account  of 
their  impatience."  Complete  it  with  a  "that"  clause; 
as,  "The  reason  he  did  not  agree  to  the  contract  was 
that  they  were  impatient." 

Right  away,  right  off.  Not  in  good  usje.  Say  at  once 
or  immediately. 

Same     ( i ) .    Do  not  use  as  a  pronoun. 

Wrong:     We  have  received  your  order  and  shall  fill 

same  within  five  days. 
Right:    We  have  received  your  order  and  shall  fill  it 

within  five  days. 
Wrong :    We  are  sending  you  two  extra  parts.    If  you 

cannot  use  the  same  kindly  return  them  to  us. 
Right:    We  are  sending  you  two  extra  parts.    If  you 

cannot  use  them  kindly  return  them  to  us. 

(2).     Same  should  not  be  used  for  in  the  same*  way 
as,  or  just  as. 

Wrong:  You  do  not  treat  us  the  same  as  other  cus- 
tomers. 

Right :  You  do  not  treat  us  in  the  same  way  that  yoy 
treat  other  customers. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS       109 

(3).     "I  want  the  same  make  that  (not  as)   I  got 
before. 

Seem,  can't  seem.    See  Can't. 

Seldom  or  ever.  Used  incorrectly  for  seldom  or  never,  or 
seldom  if  ever. 

Shall  and  will.    See  page  34  et  seq. 
Should  of.     See  Of. 

Show  up.  Vulgarly  used  in  the  sense  of  appear,  come,  be 
present,  or  in  the  sense  of  show  or  expose. 

Wrong :    He  showed  up  at  the  last  minute. 
Right:    He  appeared  at  the  last  minute. 
Wrong :    We  are  going  to  show  up  your  last  transac- 
tion. 
Right:    We  are  going  to  expose  your  last  transaction. 

Sit,  set  are  frequently  confounded.  Sit  means  to  re- 
main in  a  certain  state  of  repose,  to.  fit;  set  means  to 
put,  to  place. 

Present  Past  Present  Perfect 

I  sit  I  sat  I  have  sat 

I  set  I  set  I  have  set 

Wrong:     The  top  part  of  the  machine  sets  securely 

in  the  base. 
Right:     The  top  part  of  the  machine  is  set  (or  sits) 

securely  in  the  base. 

With  set  always  use  an  object. 


110  DICTION 

Size.      Do  not  use  size  as  an  adjective;  use  sized  or  of  size. 

Wrong :    We  are  sure  that  you  can  use  these  different 

size  plates. 
Right:     We  are  sure  that  you  can  use  these  different 

sized  plates. 

Wrong:     We  have  in  stock  every  size  tire. 
Right:    We  have  in  stock  tires  of  every  size. 

Size  up.  Vulgarly  used  in  the  sense  of  judge,  estimate,  as, 
"It  didn't  take  a  long  time  to  size  up  his  proposition." 

Some  is  often  incorrectly  used  for  somewhat,  as,  "This 
plot  of  land  is  somewhat  larger  than  French's"  (not, 
some  larger). 

Some  place.  Misused  for  somewhere.  "He  put  it  some- 
where" (not,  (fsome  place?'). 

Sort  of.     See  Kind  of. 

Stop  means  to  cease.  Do  not  use  it  in  the  sense  of  stay, 
as,  "Do  not  stop  long  in  Michigan." 

Such  (i).  Do  not  use  who,  which,  or  that  in  the  relative 
clause  completing  such;  use  as. 

Wrong :    He  offered  to  complete  the  transaction  under 

such  conditions  that  we  proposed. 
Wrong:     Such  officers  who  see  fit  should   sign  and 

mail  the  enclosed  card. 

(2).     When  such   is  completed  by  a  result  clause 
use  that  alone,  not  so  that. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS       111 

Wrong :  We  are  bound  by  such  an  agreement  so  that 
we  are  unable  to  do  business  with  you. 

Right:  We  are  bound  by  such  an  agreement  that  we 
are  unable  to  do  business  with  you. 

Take   used   in   connection   with   other   verbs   is   sometimes 
superfluous. 

Wrong:     Take  and  use  the  bottle  of  polish  which  we 

are  sending  to  you. 
Right :     Use  the  bottle  of  polish  which  we  are.  sending 

to  you. 

Than  is  often  improperly  used  for  when,  as,  "We  had 
hardly  received  your  letter  than  we  received  the  delayed 
shipment." 

That.  Do  not  use  as  an  adverb,  as,  "We  did  not  know 
it  was  that  bad."  "I  had  gone  that  far  when  I  was 
recalled." 

That  (relative  pronoun).    See  Who. 
That  there.     See  This  here. 

Therefore,  therefor.  Often  confounded.  Therefore  means 
for  that  reason,  as,  "We  have  decided  on  this  for 
five  years  and  therefore  recommend  it."  Therefor  means 
for  that  or  this,  for  it,  as,  "The  party  of  the  second 
part  agrees  to  pay  therefor  the  sum  of  $500." 

These  here.     See  This  here. 
These  kind,  these  sort.     See  Kind. 


112  DICTION 

This.    Should  not  be  used  as  an  adverb.    See  That. 

This  here,  these  here,  that  there,  those  there.  Do  not 
use.  Say,  this,  these,  those,  and  that. 

Through.      Do  not  use  in  the  sense  of  finished,  left. 

Wrong :    We  are  not  through  with  the  construction  of 

the  building. 
Right :    We  have  not  finished  with  the  construction  of 

the  building. 

Wrong:     He  got  through  with  us  in  April. 
Right:    He  left  us  in  April. 

Till,  until  are  interchangeable  when  the  meaning  is  to  the 
time  of. 

To  (preposition).  Is  often  carelessly  used  for  too  (adverb)  ; 
as,  "He  has  gone  to  far  in  this  matter"  (for  "too  far"). 

! 

Too  alone  should  not  modify  a  past  participle,  as,  "I  was 
too  (much)  disturbed  to  do  anything."  Insert  much. 

Transpire.  Not  correctly  used  .in  the  sense  of  occur,  or 
happen.  It  means  to  become  known. 

Wrong:  The  fire  broke  out  at  12  o'clock  and  trans- 
pired when  everyone  was  at  lunch. 

Right :  The  fire  broke  out  at  12  o'clock  and  occurred 
when  everyone  was  at  lunch. 

Up  should  not  be  used  with  such  words  as  divide,  finish, 
open,  settle,  write;  as,  "He  finished  up  his  work  and 
then  wrote  up  his  report." 


MISCELLANEOUS  FAULTY  EXPRESSIONS       113 

Was,  were.  Use  were,  not  was,  after  as  if,  as  though* 
or  wish. 

Right:     He  looked  as  though  he  'were  angry.     I  wish 
he  were  going  with  us. 

Way  should  be  used  with  a  preposition. 

Wrong:     Why  did  you  act  that  way? 
Right:     Why  did  you  act  in  that  way? 

What  is  often  incorrectly  used  for  that. 

Wrong:    I  have  no  doubt  but  what  you  have  handled 

the  matter  in  the  best  way. 
Right:     I  have  no  doubt  that  you  have  handled  the 

matter  in  the  best  way. 

Where  is  often  misused  for  that. 

Wrong:    I  saw  in  your  report  where  we  should  use  a 

new  system. 
Right:     I  saw  in  your  report  that  we  should  use  a 

new  system. 

Which.  Do  not  use  which  as  a  relative  pronoun  in  referring 
to  persons.  (See  Who.) 

Wrong:     The    employees    which    signed    that    paper 

ought  to  be  discharged. 
Right:     The  employees  who  signed  that  paper  ought 

to  be  discharged. 

Who,  which,  that  (as  relative  pronouns).  Who  relates 
usually  to  persons;  as,  "We  shall  send  our  attorney 
who  will  try  to  make  an  agreement  with  you."  It  is 
better  to  use  which  in  referring  to  animals.  Which 
relates  to  animals  and  things;  as,  "The  cattle  which 


114  DICTION 

we  shipped  you  should  have  been  looked  after  more 
carefully  en  route."  "Some  of  the  books  which  we  re- 
ceived were  damaged/'  That  relates  to  persons,  ani- 
mals, and  things;  as,  "The  only  man  that  can  do  this 
kind  of  advertising  is  Frank  Worth."  "Prices  ruled 
low  on  all  the  calves  that  we  sent  to  Chicago."  "The 
only  point  that  you  should  remember  is  the  quality  of 
this  silk."  Who  and  which  introduce  both  restrictive 
and  unrestrictive  clauses ;  that,  usually  a  restrictive  clause 
only.  (See  Rule  304.) 

Whoever,  whomever.  The  pronoun  who  or  whoever 
when  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  should  not  be  attracted 
into  the  objective  case  by  a  verb  or  a  preposition  pre- 
ceding the  clause  introduced  by  who  or  whoever. 

Wrong :  This  ought  to  go  to  whomever  can  best  use  it. 
Right :   This  ought  to  go  to  whoever  can  best  use  it. 
Wrong:     Whom  do  you  think  will  be  there? 
Right :    Who  do  you  think  will  be  there  ? 
See  page  20  also. 

Whose  is  the  possessive  case  of  who  and  not  of  which. 
Do  not  use  it  in  referring  to  inanimate  things. 

Wrong:     I  turned  to  the  next  page  on  whose  margin 

certain  figures  had  been  written. 
Right:     I  turned  to  the  next  page  on  the  margin  of 

which  certain  figures  had  been  written. 

Without  should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  of  unless. 

Wrong:     I  told  him  not  to  do  that  without  he  first 
asked  me. 

Write  up.     See  Up. 


VI.    TONE  AND  VARIETY 

The  Tone  of  the  House 

232.  The  character  of  a  business  house  should  so  per- 
meate  its  correspondents   that   they  unconsciously   put   into 
their  letters  a  tone  that  conforms  with  that  character. 

233.  Tone  is  secured  by  the  choice  of  words,  by  sen- 
tence and  paragraph  structure,  and  by  the  spirit  or  style  of 
the  writer. 

234.  The   character   of  the   letters   sent   out   by  firms 
like  banking  and  bond  houses  should  be  dignified  and  con- 
servative. 

Example :  "In  case  you  conclude  to  purchase  additional 
government  bonds  to  take  the  place  of  the  one-year  3% 
certificates  of  indebtedness  maturing  next  November,  we 
trust  that  you  will  correspond  with  us  regarding  the  bonds 
you  will  require  in  substitution. 

"We  shall  be  pleased  to  have  you  telegraph  at  our  ex- 
pense when  ready  for  definite  quotations  which  we  will 
make  you  subject  to  immediate  acceptance  upon  your  part. 
In  the  event  that  you  buy  the  government  bonds  from  us, 
we  shall  be  glad  to  attend  to  all  the  details  of  substituting 
them  for  the  certificates  in  your  circulation  account." 

Editorial  Manual  for  Correspondents 

235.  Every  letter  sent  out  by  a  business  house  should 
have  a  certain  atmosphere  of  quality  and   distinction,   and 

115 


116  TONE  AND  VARIETY 

should  be  written  in  a  certain  tone.  The  quality,  distinc- 
tion, and  tone  to  be  used,  are  determined  by  the  policy  and 
standing  of  the  business  house. 

236.  Since    in    many    concerns   various   correspondents 
handle  the  letters,  it  is  only  natural  that  each  correspondent 
unconsciously  puts  into  his  letters  his  own  personality.     His 
peculiar  mannerisms  and  characteristics,  good,  bad  and  in- 
different, continually  crop  out  in  his  correspondence.    These 
correspondents  should  be  given  a  set  of  rules  which  speci- 
fically instruct  and  direct  them  in  regard  to  the  policy  to  be 
adhered  to  in  collecting  accounts,  in  sales-letters,  in  answer- 
ing  complaints,   etc.,   and   show   them   how  to  handle  the 
different  points  that  come  up  in  correspondence  work,  so  that 
all  the  letters  of  the  house  may  be  uniform  in  quality  and 
have  a  consistent  personality — the  tone  of  "the  house."    The 
adoption  of  'such  uniform  policy  in  the  handling  of  letters 
means   (i)    that  the  letters  will  be  handled  more  quickly 
and    economically   since   the   individual   correspondent   need 
not  stop  to  decide  on  the  attitude  taken  by  him,  and  (2)  the 
quality  of  the  letters  will  be  raised,  for  they  will  be  writ- 
ten according  to  instructions  laid  down  by  the  head  cor- 
respondent or  the  head  of  the  department.    Only  by  the  use 
of  such  a  uniform  policy,  systematically  applied,  can  a  busi- 
ness house  having  many  correspondents  be  assured  of  a  high 
standard  of  letter  writing. 

237.  This  uniformity  in  policy  and  in  quality  can  be 
secured  by  adopting  and  enforcing  a  set  of  rules  and  by 
pointing  out  to  the  correspondent  the  standing,  the  charac- 
ter, and  the  traditions  of  the  house.    These  rules  are  divided 


EDITORIAL  MANUAL  FOR  CORRESPONDENTS  117 

into  three  classes,  as  follows :  ( i )  those  rules  which  deter- 
mine the  attitude  of  the  writer ;  for  example,  his  attitude  in 
answering  a  complaint  letter;  (2)  those  rules  that  relate 
to  the  handling  of  subject  matter,  for  example,  arguments 
to  be  used  in  sales  letters,  and  to  the  avoidance  of  certain 
hackneyed  expressions;  and  (3)  those  rules  that  relate  to 
the  mechanical  make  up  of  a  letter.  (See  Page  150.) 

238.  This  Handbook  of  Business  English  may  be  used 
in  part  as  an  editorial  manual  for  correspondents. 

239.  The  attitude  of  the  writer  or  correspondent,  since 
it  should  be  the  same  as  the  attitude  and  policy  of  the  house, 
is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  business  and  by  the  ideas 
of  the  management. 

Style  Adapted  to  the  Reader 

240.  The  English  used  must  be  adapted  to  the  reader. 
A  certain  spirit  or  tone  in  the  letter  is  essential  to  the  best 
results.     The   one  writing   or   dictating   the   letter   should 
consciously  strive  to  use  English  best  suited  to  the  reader. 
The  tone  of  a  letter  adds  greatly  toward  making  a  favorable 
impression. 

241.  A  sales-letter  to  ladies  should  be  polished,  cour- 
teous, and  non-colloquial  in  style. 

Example:  "The  materials  themselves  give  a  wide  range  of 
choice.  Some  of  the  most  elaborate  gowns  show  supple 
shot  velvets  or  broche  velvets — richly  ornamented  and  em- 
broidered in  crystal,  in  silver  and  gold — or  shimmering 
satins  overlaid  with  filmy  chiffons,  gold-threaded  nets  and 
malines,  and  the  sheerest  of  Venetian  and  Chantilly  laces. 


118  TONE  AND  VARIETY 

"A  bit  less  ethereal  are  the  chiffon  taffetas,  the  failles, 
the  crepe  de  chines  and  brocaded  crepes — in  many  in- 
stances the  vogue  for  printed  effects  and  heavily  brocaded 
silks  is  proclaimed. 

"Touches  of  fur,  marabou,  swansdown,  a  sash,  a  corsage 
bouquet — there  are  innumerable  decorative  motifs  that  give 
each  costume  the  novelty  which  the  French  so  adore." 

242.  An  example  of  the  tone  that  should  not  be  used 
in  sales  letters  to  women,  is  that  given  in  the  letter,  Figure 
I,  on  the  opposite  page. 

(This  letter  was  sent  to  women  living  in  small  towns, 
whose  husbands  were  rated  as  being  worth  $10,000  and 
over.  In  such  towns,  women  coming  under  this  classifica- 
tion would  be  regarded  as  well-to-do,  but  of  this  the  writer 
of  the  letter  apparently  took  no  heed.  The  letter  was  by 
no  means  adapted  to  the  class  of  women  to  which  it  was 
mailed,  either  in .  language,  in  tone,  or  in  examples  of  the 
uses  of  the  Ready  Light. 

The  language  used  in  this  sales  letter  is  poorly  chosen, 
and  in  many  places  is  ungrammatical.  This  of  itself  would 
create  on  the  women  readers  an  unfavorable  impression  in 
regard  to  the  article  offered  for  sale. 

The  tone  of  the  letter  is  ill-adapted  because  of  the  rough 
and  unpolished  style  of  presentation.  It  is  far  better,  in 
writing  to  women,  to  use  a  style  and  language  above  rather 
than  below  their  own. 

The  choice  of  the  examples  of  the  uses  of  the  Ready 
Light  is  poor,  and  gives  rise  to  unpleasant  suggestions. 

The  letter,  as  quoted  on  Page  119,  failed  to  bring  results 
partly  because  it  was  a  part  of  a  poor  selling  campaign,  but 
mostly  because  it  was  written  in  a  tone  and  style  ill-suited 
to  its  readers.) 


STYLE  ADAPTED  TO  THE  READER      119 


tan.  7.  B.  Smith, 

Otturawa,  Iowa* 

Dear  Madam: 

You  Know  how  difficult  It  is  to  fry  neat  fcy Artificial  light, 
and  get  it  browned  "just  so.**   The  kitchen  light  is  usually  way 
back  in  the  center  of  the  room,  and  the  cook  is  constantly  getting 
in  her  own  light f   Don't  Jump  on  the  cook.   It  isn't  her  fault • 

The  Ready  Light  can  be  placed  right  over  the  top  of  the  stove 
and  every  bit  of  the  light  thrown  down  upon  the  cooking.   Every- 
thing will  be  light  aa  day,  no  more  need  for  burned  or  under-done 
meat. 

By  a  little  Ingenuity,  the  Heady  Light  can  be  hung:  so  aa  to 
light  up  the  top  surface  of  any  kitchen  atove,  no  matter  what  kind 
or  how  arranged*   %  wife,  always  hangs  it  over  a  high-back  chair 
as  in  Position  "A".    (See  circular).    If  the  light  tilts  down 
too  much,  a  handkerchief  or  dish-cloth  placed  inside  the  curved 
base  will  hold  it  up  in  the  proper .posit ion. 

Try  the  Ready  Light  way  of  preparing. supper  tonight. 

If  you  have  any  men-folks  who  shave*  themselves,  have  them  try 
the  Ready  Light  -over  the  mirror. 

For  playing  the  piano  at  night,  the  Ready  Light  cannot  be  ex- 
celled. Place  it  over  the  back. of  a  chair  or  rocker  as  suggested 
for  use  at  the  kitchen  stove. 

R>r  sewing  at  night,  or  studying,  the  Ready  Light  concentrates 
every  bit  of  the  light  on  your  work,  and  at  the  same  time  keeps  it 
out  of  your  eyes.    The  same  amount  of  work  can  be  accomplished  in 
much  less  time,  and  with  half  the  1'atigue. 

I  will  not  enurcerate  further.  After  you  have  owned  a  Ready 
Light  for  a  wet5K  .or  two.  hundreds  of  ways  to  use  it  will  have  sug- 
gested thesis  elves. 

Do  you  not  think  it  is  a  Ready  Light? 

Yours  respectfully^ 

FIG.  I 

Example  of  Incorrect  Tone 


120  TONE  AND  VARIETY 

243.  In  advertisements  selling  goods  to  women  of  the 
better  educated  classes,  one  means,  for  example,  of  securing 
good  tone  is  by  the  use  of  French  phrases  or  words.    When 
they  are  used,  however,   they  should  not  be  followed   im- 
mediately by  the  translation.     This  should  be   introduced 
less  obviously.     Such  an  expression  as  "Perrine's  La  Neige 
(French  for  snow)   White  Washable  Gloves,"  is  too  bald. 
An  example  of  correct  use  is  as  follows  \L 

"Les  Frangais  ne  sont  jamais  contents  settlement  de  faire. 
Us  creent.  Djer-Kiss  Talc  is  strictly  a  French  creation. 
It  is  made  in  France,  the  home  of  daintiness.  It  is  made 
of  French  talc,  which  is  the  finest  in  the  world.  It  is 
perfumed  with  Djer-Kiss,  the  chef  d'ceuvre  of  Kerkoff, 
the  master  perfumer  of  Paris." 

244.  Letters  to  farmers  should  be  simple  in  style,  frank 
and  colloquial  in  tone. 

Example:  If  you  could  only  see  one  of  my  stump-pullers 
in  operation,  I  know  you  would  not  hesitate  a  minute 
about  having  one,  too.  I  am  convinced  that  no  up-to-date 
farmer  can  see  one  without  wanting  it.  In  order  to  make 
it  possible  for  the  people  in  your  locality  actually  to  see 
one  of  my  machines  working,  I  am  going  to  make  an  offer 
to  a  few  men  in  each  neighborhood  so  remarkable,  so 
sure,  so  absolutely  without  risk,  that  it  will  put  at  least 
one  exhibition  stump-puller  in  every  neighborhood  in  the 
country. 

245.  The  sporty  and  slangy  tone  may  be  used  in  letters 
written  to  sell  sporting  articles.     It  may  also  be  used  with 
success  in  other  class  advertisements  and  letters ;  for  example, 
those  addressed  to  smokers. 


STYLE  ADAPTED  TO  THE  READER     121 

"Whar  nature  leaves  off  on  Burley,  work  on  VELVET 
begins — cultivating  pickin',  an'  choosin',  to  get  the  best  an' 
richest  leaves.  Then  th'  curin'  that  lasts  mo'  than  two 
years  an'  puts  that  fine,  mellow,  aged-in-th'-wood  smooth- 
ness into  VELVET,  The  Smoothest  Smoking  Tobacco." 

FIRST  OF  ALL— 

You  buy  a  jimmy  pipe.  Get  one  that  chums-up  with 
your  spirit  right  off  the  bat,  natural-like.  Then  lay  a 
dime  against  a  tidy  red  can  of  Prince  Albert  tobacco  that's 
all  pleasing  and  fragrant  and  fresh.  A  match! — and 
you're  off! 

Get  jimmy  pipe  joy'us  quick  as  you  can  beat  it  up  the 
pike  to  any  store  that  sells  tobacco.  .  .  . 

246.  Once  the  tone  or  character  of  the  letter  has  been 
decided  upon,   this  tone  should  be  adhered   to  throughout. 
Any  false  note  that  is  struck  destroys  the  effect  of  the  whole 
letter. 

Example:  "The  Merchants'  City  Bank  of  New  York  has 
purchased  bonds  of  the  above  loan  to  the  amount  of  five 
million  dollars,  description  of  which  is  contained  in  the 
enclosed  circular. 

"We  are  able  to  offer  these  bonds  with  accumulated 
interest  less  the  broker's  commission  of  54%  at  94.  We 
desire  to  make  you  an  advance  offer  of  any  part  at  this 
figure.  This  is  pretty  good  stuff,  don't  you  think?  Why 
not  take  on  a  line  of  it?" 

247.  Besides  the  style  in  which  the  writer  adapts  him- 
self to  the  reader;  besides  the  established  tone  in  the  corre- 
spondence  of  a  business  house,   there   is  still   another  tone 
which  comes  from  the  business  sense  and  which  applies  to 
its   ordinary  letters.   This   is  the  courteous,   agreeable,   and 


122  TONE  AND  VARIETY 

positive  note  so  conducive  to  good  business  relations.  Take, 
for  example,  the  possible  ways  of  beginning  a  letter  answer- 
ing a  complaint: 

Negative :  We  must  say  that  we  are  surprised  to  learn  from 
your  letter  of  Jan.  19  that  you  are  dissatisfied  with  your 
purchase  from  us  on  Jan.  14. 

Neutral:  Your  letter  of  Jan.  19  in  regard  to  a  shirtwaist 
purchased  from  us  on  Jan.  14  has  been  received. 

Positive:  Thank  you  for  your  candid  letter  of  Jan.  19,  in 
which  you  call  our  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  shirtwaist 
you  purchased  on  Jan.  14  does  not  come  up  to  the  usual 
high  quality  of  goods  handled  by  our  store. 

Note :  The  third,  the  positive  beginning,  is  by  far  the  best 
because  its  tone  gets  the  reader  into  the  right  spirit  to 
read  the  rest  of  the  letter.  Remember  that  the  first  para- 
graph of  the  letter  is  usually  the  most  important.  From  it 
the  reader  shapes  his  entire  attitude. 

Variety 

248.  Variation  in  the  length  and  structure  of  sentences 
not  only  stimulates  the  attention,  but  makes  interesting  even 
the  dullest  subject.     This  is  the  only  practical  method  of 
imparting   to  a  dull   recital  of   facts    (e.   g.,   letters  selling 
bonds),  the  interest  so  necessary  in  certain  forms  of  busi- 
ness correspondence. 

249.  Sameness  or  monotony  of  construction  is  a  fatal 
fault  in  many  letters,  for  it  takes  the  life  out  of  the  most 
interesting   subject.      In   like   manner,    the   constant   use   of 
any  one  form  of  sentence  or  the  steady  recurrence  of  the 
same   kind   of   construction   in   sentences,    both    annoys   the 
reader  and  distracts  his  attention.     Since  most  sentences  are 


VARIETY   IN   SENTENCE   STRUCTURE  123 

written  in  the  loose  style,  it  is  safe  to  advise  the  writer  to 
use  the  periodic  style,  so  far  as  can  be  done  without  apparent 
artifice.  The  more  the  writer  uses  the  short  staccato  sen- 
tence, the  more  interesting  becomes  his  style. 

250.     Common  violations  of  the  principle  of  variety  are: 

a.  The  frequent  use  of  compound  sentences  composed 
of  two  members  of  about  the  same  length  joined  by  and 
or  but. 

Examples :  "Two  weeks  ago  we  wrote  to  you  about  our  re- 
liable watch  and  we  hope  that  you  have  been  interested  in 
it.  To-day  we  are  sending  to  you  testimonials  from  many 
people  who  have  bought  these  watches  and  we  know  that 
you  will  be  impressed  when  you  see  them.  You  may  still 
be  a  little  sceptical  about  this  watch  and  you  may  say 
that  we  can't  live  up  to  our  offer.  You  should  read  care- 
fully the  enclosed  testimonials  and  you  will  then  know 
that  we  do  live  up  to  our  agreements." 

"We  have  sent  to  you  by  the  last  mail  a  copy  of  our 
pamphlet  and  we  hope  that  you  will  read  it  carefully.  You 
will  notice  that  a  full  description  of  the  adding  machine 
is  given  on  page  10  and  you  will  find  it  is  very  complete. 
You  will  find  on  the  same  page  an  answer  to  your  ques- 
tion and  you  will  see  how  easily  the  machine  is  operated." 

Note :  It  is  important  to  remember  that  coordination  is 
not  a  rhetorical  fault.  The  real  fault  lies  in  the  use  of 
isolated  compound  sentences,  each  consisting  of  two  clauses 
joined  by  the  same  conjunction,  "and."  We  should  care- 
fully distinguish  between  those  cases  in  which  this  structure 
best  expresses  the  thought  and  those  in  which  it  represents 
no  thought  at  all. 

b.  The  frequent  use  of  participial  or  absolute  phrases 
(Rule  107). 


124  TONE   AND    VARIETY 

Examples :  Early  copy  means  early  proof,  avoiding  the 
necessity  for  hasty  revision.  Therefore  kindly  see  that 
we  receive  your  copy  by  May  22,  this  being  the  last  day. 
Remember  that  advertisements  of  1,500  lines  or  more  will 
be  placed  on  a  separate  page,  the  remainder  of  the  page 
containing  interesting  news  matter. 

c.  The  frequent  use  of  so  for  the  purpose  of  compounding 
sentences. 

Examples :  We  understood  that  you  were  interested  in  our 
trip,  so  we  sent  you  our  pamphlet  and  circulars.  This 
trip,  you  will  recall,  is  being  conducted  by  the  University, 
so  it  will  not  be  a  money  making  scheme.  And  too,  the 
party  is  under  the  leadership  of  well-known  civic  experts, 
so  you.  can  be  assured  of  a  profitable  experience. 

d.  The  frequent  use  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  of 
after  this,  after  that,  there  is,  there  are,  and  now. 

Example :  There  are  two  special  designs  featured  in  E.  &  W. 
Shirts.  There  are  in  these  same  shirts  materials  unsur- 
passed for  workmanship.  There  are  also  other  points  of 
superiority  which  we  have  no  space  to  mention. 

e.  The  frequent  use  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  of  a 
connective  such  as,  therefore,  however,  and  nevertheless. 

Example:  If  your  workrooms  are  not  properly  ventilated, 
your  employees  cannot  do  efficient  work.  Therefore  you 
lose  money  because  you  lose  service.  Therefore  it  would 
be  wise  to  have  installed  one  of  our  electric  suction  fans. 
Therefore  call  me  up  or  write  to  me. 

f.  Too  frequent  use  of  the  personal  pronoun  I. 


VII.    THE  OUTLINE 

251.  In  the  writing  of  a  long  report,  an  important  busi- 
ness letter,  or  an  article,  the  outline  is  of  importance.     Not 
only  will  the  writer's  time  be  saved,  but  the  actual  labor  of 
composition  will  be  easier  and  in  the  end  the  result  will  be 
more  satisfactory. 

252.  An  outline  is  a  properly  coordinated  arrangement 
of  the  important  facts  which  are  to  be  included.     In  other 
words,  it  is  a  condensed  form  of  notes.     A  common  fault  is 
that  it  is  made  too  soon  after  notes  have  been  taken  on  the 
subject.      The    material    should    have    been    collected    some 
little  time  and  the  subject  allowed  to  shape  itself  before  the 
outline  is  given  an  opportunity  to  crystallize.     The  three 
essentials  of  a  good  working  outline  are:  unity,  simplicity, 
and  proportion. 

253.  The  principle  of  unity  is  applied  by  seeing  that 
one  topic  leads  to  another  and  that  all  pertain  to  the  same 
topic.     Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  nothing  is  included 
in  the  main  topic  which  is  a  part  of  the  subordinate  topic. 

254.  The  outline  should  be  simple  in  construction.     No 
wearisome  details  should  be  included,  and  there  should  be 
no  confusion  of  topics. 

255.  The  principle  of  proportion  as  here  applied  means 
that  the  main  ideas  must  be  made  main  topics;  subordinate 
ideas  must  not  be  made  principal  topics,  but  sub-topics  of 
main  topics.     Sub-ideas  should  be  properly  subordinated. 

125 


126  THE  OUTLINE 

256.  The  five  steps  taken  in  the  making  of  an  outline 
are: 

(1)  The  statement  of  the  definitely  limited  subject. 

(2)  The  selection  of  the  point  of  view. 

(3)  The  selection  and  arrangement  of  the  main  topics. 

(4)  The  subdivision  of  the  main  topics. 

(5)  Revision    to    secure    clearness,    unity,    simplicity,    and 

proportion. 

257.  An  example  of  an  outline  for  a  sales  report  is  as 
follows : 

Report  on  Sales  Department  of  Standard  Gear 

Motor  Co. 
Presentation : 

I.  The  Present   Selling  System — 

1.  Tabulated  comparison  of  sales,  this  year  with  last. 

2.  Field  and  prospects. 

3.  Methods  of  selling. 

a.  Office  sales. 

b.  Salesmen  on  salary  and  commission. 

c.  Agency  sales. 

II.  Faults  of  the  Present  System — 

1.  Small  number  of  salesmen  results  in: 

a.  An  inconsiderable  amount  of  territory  covered. 

b.  Limited  number  of  prospects  followed  up  and 
sold. 

c.  Competitors  entering  field. 

2.  Waste  of  50%  of  salesman's  time  caused  by : 

a.  Lack  of  advertising. 

b.  Lack  of  follow-up  letters. 

3.  Lack  of  cooperation  with  agencies. 


THE  OUTLINE  127 

III.  Remedies  Suggested — 

1.  Increase  in  salesmen  so  that: 

a.  More  territory  may  be  covered. 

b.  More  prospects  may  be  followed  up  and  sold. 

c.  Competition  may  be  met. 

2.  Appropriation  for  advertising  and  follow-up  cam- 
paigns to  save  50%  of  salesman's  time. 

3.  Closer  cooperation  with  agencies. 

IV.  Probable  Results— 

1.  Increase  in  sales  because  of  larger  force  of  sales- 
men. 

2.  The   advertising  and   follow-up   systems  will   re- 
sult in: 

a.  Direct    sales    from    advertising    and    follow-up 
systems. 

b.  Increase  of  100%   in  selling  power  of  present 
salesmen. 

3.  Increased  sales  through  agencies. 

V.  Recommendations — 

1.  Increase  in  number  of  salesmen. 

2.  Appropriation  for: 

a.  Advertising  campaign. 

b.  Follow-up  campaign. 

3.  Better  treatment  of  agencies. 

Conclusion. 

258.  After  the  outline  has  assumed  the  above  form,  it 
should  be  carefully  scrutinized  for  any  defects  in  its  mechan- 
ical and  logical  arrangement. 


VIII.     BUSINESS  REPORTS 

Definition  of  a  Business  Report 

259.  A  business  report  is  a  statement  which  contains 
in   logical   form   specific   facts   and   figures  pertaining   to   a 
certain  phase  of  business.     It  may  contain  also  the  writer's 
recommendations  or  conclusions  based  on  the  facts  given. 

260.  The  purpose  of  a  report  is  to  convey  information 
that  is  of  use  and  that  is  to  be  used,  and  the  writer  should 
never  lose  sight  of  this  fact.     No  report  should  be  made 
unless  it  has  some  definite  purpose  or  tries  to  convey  some 
definite  information. 

261.  A   report   implies   a  maker   and   a   receiver.   The 
latter  is  usually  some  one  in  authority  who  is  to  use  the 
report  and  base  a  judgment  upon  the  information  contained 
in   it.     Accordingly,   the   function   and   purpose  of  the  one 
who  receives  the  report  should  determine  its  character  and 
contents.      Hence,   a  report  to  be   made  to  go   out  to  the 
stockholders  of  a  company  should  be  adapted  to  them  and 
to  their  use.    If  the  report  is  to  go  to  the  head  of  a  technical 
department  it  need  be  adapted  only  to  him. 

262.  The  making  of  a  report  is  of  great  importance 
to  the  reporter  for  the  reason  that  it  usually  goes  to  some- 
one in  authority,  who  judges  the  reporter  by  his  work.     Re- 
ports are  demanded  of  nearly  everyone  in  business — sales- 

128 


DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF    REPORTS  129 

men,  managers,  committees,  secretaries,  treasurers,  experts, 
accountants,  and  so  on. 

263.  The  executive  who  desires  a  report,  should  select 
the  man  or  men  who  have  the  opportunities  and  training 
which  best  fit  them  for  getting  the  desired  information. 

Different  Kinds  of  Reports. 

264.  Reports  range  all  the  way  from  the  short,  pub- 
lished,   bank   reports   and    accountant's   reports,    which    are 
nearly  all  figures,  to  those  of  consuls  and  others,  which  are 
mostly  narration,  description,  and  exposition.    There  is  every 
grade    of    report    from    the   mere    presentation    of    facts   or 
statistics    up    to    dignified    persuasion    and    the    making   of 
recommendations. 

265.  There  are  two  forms  of  reports — the  personal  and 
the  impersonal.     The  personal   is  used   when   dignity  and 
formality  need  not  be  observed;  the  impersonal  style  is  used 
when  these  characteristics  are  essential  elements. 

266.  As  a  rule,  a  report  which  contains  recommenda- 
tions is  more  important  than  one  containing  merely  figures. 
The  former  demands  that  the  business  judgment  and  know- 
ledge of  the  writer  be  exercised ;  whereas,  in  the  latter,  only 
facts  and  figures  are  given.     In  a  report  making  a  recom- 
mendation, the  writer  should  realize  the  responsibility  that 
rests  upon  his  judgment  and  should  act  accordingly. 

Arrangement  of  the  Business  Report 

267.  A   business    report    is    largely    dependent    for   its 
value  on  the  method  of  arrangement  and  presentation. 


130  BUSINESS   REPORTS 

268.  Both  the  logical  and  mechanical  arrangement  of 
the   report  should,   therefore,   be  very  carefully  considered. 
The  logical  arrangement   is  necessary  so   that  the  thought 
may    progress    properly.      The    mechanical    arrangement    is 
necessary    in   order   that   the   various   topics   may   be   easily 
found  or  referred  to. 

269.  For  convenience  of  reference  the  report  should  be 
properly    displayed.    It    should    have    numerous    sub-heads 
written    in    capitals,    underlined,    or    in    some    other    way 
separated  from  the  body  of  the  reading  matter,  so  that  they 
can  be  seen  at  a  glance.     Sometimes  they  are  placed  in  the 
marginal   space.     At  other  times  they  are  boxed  by   rules 
and  placed  in  the  reading  matter  in  the  margins.     In  every 
case,    margins   should    be   wide    and    paragraphs   should    be 
separated  by  an  abundance  of  white  space.     The  arrange- 
ment of  these  headings  and  topics  is  a  most  important  con- 
sideration   in    a   report.      For    further    convenience,    figures 
should    be    tabulated,    and    maps    and    diagrams    inserted 
wherever  possible. 

270.  Recommendations   should   be   separated   from   and 
follow  the  facts  on  which  they  are  based.     A  good  arrange- 
ment is  secured  either  by  grouping  all  recommendations  at 
the  end  of  the  report  or  by  placing  a  recommendation  at  the 
end  of  each  division  of  facts  which  necessitates  one.     If  a 
report  is  long  and  involves  the  making  of  recommendations 
on  several  .topics,  it  is  better  to  place  the  recommendations 
throughout   the   report   following  each   separate   division   of 
facts   or   statements.      If   the   report   is   short   they  may  be 
grouped  at  the  end.     In  many  cases  where  recommendations 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  BUSINESS  REPORT    131 

are  scattered   throughout  the  report,   they  are  summed  up 
at  the  end. 

271.  Recommendations  should  not  be  hidden  within  a 
paragraph,  but  should  be  paragraphed  separately. 

Example :  We  therefore  recommend  that  an  appropriation 
of  $10,000  be  made  for  advertising  and  follow-up  cam- 
paigns. 

We   also   recommend   that   the   present   sales   force  be 
increased  to  forty-two. 

272.  Recommendations  should  be  simple,  but  definite, 
comparatively   few   in  number,   and  should   deal  with  only 
the  essential  points  under  discussion  in  the  report. 

273.  The  purpose  and  source  of  any  report  should  de- 
cide the  nature,  form,  and  arrangement  of  its  contents.     For 
example,   if  it  is  informal   and   is  to  be  seen  only  by  one 
or  two  persons,  it  may  be  submitted  in  letter  form.     If  the 
report  is  to  be  published  for  the  benefit  of  stockholders,  it 
must  have  an  arrangement  suitable  for  publication. 

274.  Nothing  should  be  included  in  the  report  unless  it 
pertains  to  the  title  and  is  common  to  it.     Likewise,  each 
sub-title  must  cover  every  point  contained  in  the  passage 
which  it  titles. 

275.  The  beginning  of  a  report  should  state  its  object, 
the  ground  to  be  covered,  and  the  sources  of  facts  stated  (i.  e., 
whether  they  have  been   obtained  by  personal   observation, 
by  talk  with  employees,  or  otherwise),  and  the  authority  by 
which  the  reporter  is  making  the  report.     The  end  should 


132  BUSINESS  REPORTS 

be  a  summary  of  the  essential  facts  given  and  a  review  of 
the  conclusions  reached  throughout. 

An  Example  of  a  Presentation 

To  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Standard  Gear  Motor 

Company, 
Gentlemen  : 

In  compliance  with  the  vote  passed  at  your  last  meeting, 
January  21,  1914,  that  "The  sales  manager  shall  submit 
a  report  on  the  sales  system  now  in  use,  together  with  his 
recommendations  as  to  how  his  department  may  be  im- 
proved," I  herewith  present  a  report  entitled  "Report 
on Company." 

I  have  personally  examined  the  condition  of  my  depart- 
ment and  have  considered  carefully  every  method  whereby 
sales  may  be  increased.  I  hope  that  the  Board  will  take 
under  special  consideration  the  remedies  suggested  for 
the  faults  of  our  present  selling  system. 

An  Example  of  a  Conclusion 

In  conclusion,  allow  me  to  say  that  I  hope  the  Board 
will  pass  favorably  upon  the  system  as  outlined  in  this 
report  and  embodied  in  the  recommendations,  for  I  firmly 
believe,  if  the  report  be  accepted  and  the  recommendations 
passed,  the  Board  will  feel  satisfied  with  the  results. 
Respectfully  submitted, 


An  example  of  the  mechanical  arrangement  of  a  type- 
written page  of  a  business  report  is  given  in  Fig.  2,  on  the 
opposite  page. 


tittle  territory 
covered  because  of 
small  number  of 
salesmen 


ARRANGEMENT   OF  A   BUSINESS   REPORT     133 


nave  been  realising  for  some  time  past  that  they  have  been 
very  much  slighted  by  the  company* 

FAULTS  OF  THE  PRE5E3T  SELLDTO  SYSTEM 

After  a  reading  of  the  foregoing  matter  on  the  present 
selling  system,  it  will  be  seen  that  certain  great  faults 
exist.      Of  these  faults,  the  first  that  I  desire  to  dis- 
cuss la  the  fact  that  the  small  number  of  salesmen  compos- 
ing our  present  sales  force  have  been  able  to  cover  only 
a  small  part  of  tne  territory  assigned  to  them. 

Each  of  these  salesmen  (they  are  on  a  salary  and  commission 
basis)  has  been  assigned  a  certain  district  or  territory  in 
the  United  States.        On  personal  investigation  and  from 
reports  submitted  I  have  found  that  of  the  twenty-four  dis- 
tricts which  have  been  alloted  to  salesmen,  only  four  have 
been  anywhere  near  covered.      $7  that  I  mean  that  only  four 
salesmen  of  twenty-four  to  whom  exclusive  territory  had  been 
assigned  have  been  able  to  meet  the  known  prospects  of  their 
district 9«    The  following  table  shows  in  concrete  form  this 
wretched  conditions 

fiumber  of  active  prospects        Sumber  of  prospects 
on  the  market  .net  by  salesmen 

7,  200  Z39J6 


limited  number  of 
prospects  sold 


18,  500 


Fig.  4 


Another  fault  with  the  present  selling  system  is  the  limited 
number  of  prospects  sold.   From  the  table  (Fig.  4)  given 

FIG.  2 
Example  of  a  Typewritten  Page  of  a  Report 


134  BUSINESS   REPORTS 

Clearness  in  the  Business  Report 

276.  As  the  receiver  of  a  report  is  usually  some  one 
in   authority  who   can   profitably   use   the   information   and 
recommendations,    the   essential    qualities    are   clearness   for 
the  first  reading  and  convenience  for  reference. 

277.  To  obtain  clearness,  it  is  necessary  for  the  writer 
to  observe  the  principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis 
both  in  the  report  as  a  whole  and  in  its  separate  divisions 
and  paragraphs. 

278.  Use  simple  language;  avoid  technical  terms  unless 
they  are  adapted  to  and  can  be   easily  understood  by  the 
reader.  Wherever  possible  use  maps,  charts,  diagrams,  and 
illustrations.    They  are  more  vivid  than  pages  of  description. 

Miscellaneous  Points 

279.  The  most  common  errors  of  business  reports  are: 
(i)  essentials  included,  but  the  report  not  clear;  (2)  non- 
essentials  included;  (3)   essentials  omitted. 

280.  For  the  sake  of  securing  the  necessary  qualities  and 
observing  the  principles  of  construction,  an  outline  should 
be  made  by  dividing  the  subject  according  to  some  principle 
and  then  sub-dividing  the  sections  as  this  becomes  necessary. 
The  topics  thus  secured  should  be  arranged  in  proper  order 
and  so  far  as  possible  should  be  expressed  in  definite  sen- 
tences.    (See  Page  126.) 

281.  Proportion  in  a  report  means  that  important  facts 
should  be  given  as  much  space  as  is  needed  by  them,  and 
unimportant  facts  should  be  given  as  little  space  as  possible. 


ACCOUNTANTS'  REPORTS  135 

282.  Check  up  these  four  points  in  revising  the  busi- 
ness report:  (i)  arrangement  (mechanical  and  logical); 

(2)  proportion;   (3)   clearness;  (4)  conciseness. 

Accountants'  Reports 

283a.  The  accountant's  report  usually  consists  of  four 
main  divisions:  (i)  the  presentation;  (2)  the  certificate; 

(3)  comments;  and  (4)  exhibits  and  schedules. 

283b.  The  presentation  is  the  same  as  that  in  the 
ordinary  report,  but  in  addition  includes  a  statement  as  to 
the  contents  of  the  whole  report;  e.g.,  "A  certificate,  ten 
pages  of  comments,  and  the  following  exhibits  and  schedules 


283c.  The  certificate  certifies  that  the  audit  has  been 
made  and  is  correct.  This  is  signed  by  the  accountant. 
These  certificates  are  of  two  kinds — qualified  and  unquali- 
fied. A  qualified  certificate  states  that  the  correctness  of  the 
audit  is  vouched  for,  subject  however  to  the  comments.  An 
unqualified  certificate,  as  its  name  implies,  is  not  thus 
qualified. 

283d.  The  comments  in  many  cases  constitute  the 
major  part  of  the  report  and  are  of  great  importance  to  the 
reader.  Comments  have  four  main  purposes:  (i)  They 
bring  sharply  to  the  attention  of  the  reader  a  particular 
fact  that  might  be  passed  by  in  the  examination  of  the 
figures  given  in  the  schedules;  (2)  they  make  clear  certain 
statements  and  figures  in  the  schedules;  (3)  they  describe 
the  work  that  has  been  done,  and  may  tell  what  has  not 
been  done;  (4)  they  contain  suggestions  and  recommenda- 
tions, if  recommendations  are  asked  for. 


IX.   PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALIZATION 

The  Comma  (,) 

284.  The  comma  indicates  the  smallest  degree  of  separa- 
tion in  the  sentence.     It  is  required : 

285.  After  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  where  two  or 
more  are  used  in  succession  and  the  connectives  are  omitted. 

Right:     This  machine  is  strong,  well-made,  and  costs  little. 

286.  To  set  off  a  proper  name  used  in  direct  address. 

Right:     You  will  understand,  Mr.  Fall,  that  we  have  done 
our  best  in  this  matter. 

287.  To  set  off  absolute  participial  phrases. 

Right :    Our  factory  having  burned  last  week,  we  are  unable 
to  fill  our  orders. 

288.  To  separate  parenthetical  or  intermediate  expres- 
sions from  the  context. 

Right :    His  plans,  although  well  made,  have  become  known. 

289.  To  set  off  appositives. 

Right:     He  stayed  at  our  headquarters,  the  Hotel  Astor. 
136 


THE  COMMA  137 

290.  To  indicate  an  ellipsis. 

Right :    Price,  $2.50. 

Right:  Some  of  the  boxes  were  shipped  yesterday;  the 
rest,  to-day. 

291.  To  set  off  a  geographical  name  explaining  a  pre- 
ceding name. 

Right:  The  goods  were  sent  by  mistake  to  St.  Joseph,  Mo., 
instead  of  to  St.  Joseph,  Mich. 

292.  To  separate  two  numbers. 

Right :     May  25,  1914. 

Right:     In  1912,  412  complaints  were  registered. 

293.  To  separate  a  quotation  from  the  other  parts  of 
the  sentence. 

Right :  When  we  read  in  his  letter,  "I  shall  be  sure  to  send 
this  on  Friday,"  we  awaited  his  message. 

294.  Between  two  independent  clauses  connected  by  one 
of  the  simple  conjunctions. 

Right:    The  delay  was  our  fault,  but  we  could  not  help  it. 

295.  To  set  off  a  dependent  clause  preceding  its  prin- 
cipal clause. 

Note:    A  comma  is  usually  not  necessary  when  the  de- 
pendent clause  follows  the  principal  clause. 

Right :  If  we  had  received  this  in  time,  we  should  not  have 
said  anything. 

Right:  We  should  not  have  said  anything  if  we  had  re- 
ceived this  in  time. 


138         PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALIZATION 

296.  Before    "not"    when    introducing   an    antithetical 
clause,  phrase,  or  word. 

Right:    We  have   done  this,   not  because  it  is  our  policy, 

but  because  this  is  an  exceptional  case. 
Right:    You  should  have  taken  his  point  of  view,  not  your 

own. 

297.  To    indicate    separation    between    any    sentence 
elements  that  might  be  misunderstood. 

Wrong:    Ever  since  we  have  refused  to  do  business  with 

them. 
Right:    Ever  since,  we  have  refused  to  do  business  with 

them. 

298.  To  separate   two  adjectives  modifying  the  same 
noun,  if  they  are  coordinate  in  thought. 

Right:    He  is  a  willing,  steady  worker. 

(The  adjectives  are  coordinate  in  thought;  both  modify 
"worker.") 
Right:    We  have  shipped  a  large  open  boat. 

(The  adjectives  are  not  coordinate  in  thought;  "open" 
modifies  "boat,"  but  "large"  modifies  "open  boat*.") 

299.  Between  the  name  of  a  person  and  his  title. 

Right:     Perley  Thorne,  M.  S. 
Right:     Frank  Jones,  cashier. 

300.  Between    the    terms    of    a    series    of    words    or 
phrases,  if  the  conjunction  be  omitted. 

Right:    The  plan  of  the  bankers  is  to  remain  patient,  calm. 

301.  Between  repeated  or  similar  words,  or  phrases. 
Right:    Down,  down,  down,  have  gone  our  prices. 


THE  COMMA  139 

302.  To  divide  numbers  in  groups  of  three  figures  each. 
Right:    82,934,567. 

303.  To  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  a  non- 
restrictive  adjective  clause. 

Right:    Louis,   who  has  been  with  us   only  two  years,   is 
our  best  salesman. 

304.  When  the  phrases  or  group  is  restrictive  no  commas 
are  used. 

Right:   An  investment  which  nets  about  4%  is  the  one  I  am 
looking  for. 

Note :  The  following  test  may  be  used  to  decide  whether 
a  given  clause  or  phrase  is  restrictive  or  non-restrictive: 
If  the  main  assertion  in  the  sentence  remains  unchanged 
in  meaning  and  can  stand  alone  if  the  clause  or  phrase 
be  omitted,  the  clause  or  phrase  is  non-restrictive.  If  the 
main  assertion  of  the  sentence  is  incomplete  and  cannot 
stand  alone  in  meaning  unless  the  clause  or  phrase  be 
present,  the  clause  or  phrase  is  restrictive.  In  the  sentence 
"Louis,  who  has  been  with  us  only  two  years,  is  our  best 
salesman,"  the  clause  "who  has  been  with  us  only  two 
years"  may  be  omitted  and  the  main  assertion  is  unaffected, 
namely,  "Louis  is  our  best  salesman."  But  in  the  sen- 
tence, "An  investment  which  nets  about  4%  is  the  one 
I  am  looking  for,"  the  clause  "which  nets  about  4%"  can- 
not be  omitted  from  the  sentence,  for  then  the  sentence 
would  read  '"An  investment  is  the  one  I  am  looking  for" 
which  makes  no  sense.  In  this  case,  therefore,  the  clause 
is  restrictive. 

305.  To  separate  the  adverbs,  however,  now,  then,  too, 
perhaps,  and  indeed  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  when  they 
are  used  as  connectives. 

Right:    "Your  first  letter,  however,  has  not  reached  us." 


140         PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALIZATION 

306.  To  separate  similar  words,  even  though  the  comma 
is  not  required  by  the  sense  or  the  grammatical  construction. 

Right:    I  tell  you,  you  are  hurting  only  yourself  by  your 
attitude. 

307.  In  a  series  of  three  or  more  words  where  the  con- 
junction and  is  used  between  the  last  two  words. 

Right:    We  have  in  stock  a  large  quantity  of  purple,  white, 
and  blue  silks. 

Note :  Many  of  the  best  writers  do  not  agree  on 
the  use  of  the  comma  with  the  conjunction;  for,  as  they 
say,  the  comma  between  words  is  used  for  and.  If  and  is 
used,  the  comma  is  unnecessary.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
seems  illogical  to  omit  the  comma,  for  the  intention  is 
to  make  the  three  adjectives  equally  distinct.  White  and 
blue  silks  might  mean  silks,  each  of  which  is  colored 
white  and  blue. 

308.  Do  not  use  a  comma  before  the  first  member  of 
a  series  of  sentence  elements,  unless  it  would  be  proper  there, 
were  there  only  one  element  instead  of  a  series. 

Wrong:    This  make  of  electric  truck  is  being  used,   (i)  by 

17   department  stores,    (2)    by  7  express  companies,    (3) 

by  8  bakers. 
Right:    This  make  of  electric  truck  is  being  used   (i)   by 

17  department  stores,    (2)    by  7  express  companies,    (3) 

by  8  bakers. 

309.  The  comma  is  not  required  after  a  short  inversion 
or  in  any  other  place  where  the  sense  is  unmistakable  and 
no  pause  would  be  made  in  reading. 

Wrong:    In  your  letter,  was  a  check  for  $5. 
Right:    In  your  letter  was  a  check  for  $5. 


THE  SEMI-COLON  141 

310.  The  comma  is  not  required  before  a  substantive 
clause  introduced  by  that  when  the  governing  verb  imme- 
diately or  very  closely  precedes  the  clause. 

Wrong:    He  wrote,  that  he  was  returning  the  bonds. 
Right:    He  wrote  that  he  was  returning  the  bonds. 

311.  Do  not  make  the  comma  fault;  that  is,   do  not 
use  a  comma  at  the  end  of  a  grammatically  complete  asser- 
tion that  is  not  joined  to  a  following  assertion  by  a  con- 
junction.    Use  the  period. 

Wrong:  You  probably  know  how  successful  our  sales  agents 
have  been  in  your  state,  this  is  the  reason  we  are  now 
establishing  agencies  in  every  town  where  we  are  not 
already  represented. 

Right:  You  probably  know  how  successful  our  sales  agents 
have  been  in  your  state.  This  is  the  reason  we  are  now 
establishing  agencies  in  every  town  where  we  are  not 
already  represented. 

The  Semi-Colon  (;) 

312.  The  semi-colon  indicates  a  wider  uegree  of  separa- 
tion than  the  comma.     It  is  used: 

313.  To  separate  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence 
that  are  not  joined  by  conjunctions. 

Right:  Your  advertisement  makes  the  customer  glad  to 
buy;  the  chance  of  betterment  spurs  your  man  to  eager- 
ness in  work. 

314.  To  separate  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence 
that  are  joined  by  a  conjunction,  only  when  it  is  desirable 
to  indicate  a  very  definite  pause. 

Right:  We  have  informed  you  of  the  delay  in  shipment; 
but  we  have  not  told  you  yet  of  the  reason  for  it. 


142         PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALIZATION 

315.  Between  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  that 
are  joined  by  one  of  the  conjunctive  adverbs,  such  as  accord- 
ingly, besides,  hence,  thus,  therefore,  then,,  still,  also,  never- 
theless, moreover,  and  however. 

Wrong:    This  camera  is  made  of  aluminum,  therefore,  it 

is  very  light. 
Right:    This  camera  is  made  of  aluminum;  therefore,  it  is 

very  light. 

Wrong:    You  see,  the  motor  had  too  much  oil,  then  it  got 

heated  up  and  smoked  like  a  volcano. 
Right:    You  see,  the  motor  had  too  much  oil;  then  it  got 

heated  up  and  smoked  like  a  volcano. 

316.  To  separate  the  parts  of  a  compound  or  a  com- 
plex sentence  when  some  of  those  parts  are  punctuated  by 
commas. 

Right:  We  have  been  informed  that  he  has  refused  to 
honor  his  draft;  that  he  has  paid  none  of  his  bills,  al- 
though heretofore,  he  has  borne  a  good  reputation  in  this 
respect ;  and  that  his  bank  account  is  greatly  depleted. 

317.  To   separate   two  elements  of  a  simple  or  com- 
pound sentence  when  for  any  reason  a  comma  would  not 
make  the  relation  between  them  immediately  clear. 

Wrong:     If    we   had   your    territory,    we    should    sell    this 

product    to    every    banker,    and    merchant,    and    nobody 

would  escape  us. 
Right:     If    we    had    your    territory,    we    should    sell    this 

product    to    every    banker    and    merchant;    and    nobody 

would  escape  us. 


THE   COLON  143 

The  Colon  (  ;) 

318.  The  colon   is   the   mark  of  equality:   it   indicates 
that  what  follows  is  equivalent  to,  or  explains,  what  pre- 
cedes.    It  is  used: 

319.  Before  the  expressions,  as  that  is,  namely,  etc.,  and 
before  the  abbreviations,  viz.,  i.  e.,  e.  g.,  etc.,  when  they  are 
used  to  introduce  a  series  of  particular  terms  simple  in  form 
that  are  in  apposition  to  the  general  term. 

Right:  Up  to  the  present  time,  we  have  opened  five  new 
accounts :  namely,  the  Johnson  Company,  The  Smith 
Company,  The  White  Company,  The  Jones  Company,  and 
the  Stone-Black  Company. 

Note :  Some  authorities  prefer  the  semi-colon  here,  and 
use  the  colon  only  when  such  an  introductory  word  is 
understood  but  not  expressed. 

320.  After  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  of  a  sentence  that 
is  used  as  an  introduction  to  something  that  follows,  such 
as  an  enumeration,  or  an  extended  quotation. 

Right :  There  are  three  points  to  be  taken  into  consideration : 
production,  transportation,  and  marketing. 

Right:  Mr.  Jones  said  in  his  letter:  "(A  long  quotation 
follows)." 

321.  After   the  formal  salutation  at  the  beginning  of 
the  letter:  e.  g.,   Gentlemen:     When  less  formality  is  de- 
sired, a  comma  may  be  used :  e.  g.,  My  dear  Fred, 

322.  Between  the  hours  and  minutes  in  indicating  time: 
e.  g.,  9 :45  A.  M. 


144         PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALIZATION 
The  Dash  (— ) 

323.  The  dash  indicates  an  abrupt  change  of  construc- 
tion.    It  is  used: 

324.  To  indicate  any  sudden  break  in  thought  or  speech. 

Right:  Your  order  for  a  sample  pouch  of  ROYAL  MIX- 
TURE is  greatly  appreciated — by  the  way,  have  you  re- 
ceived the  sample  package  of  tobacco  that  we  mailed  you? 

325.  In  place  of  the  comma,  to  set  off  more  definitely 
some  part  of  the  sentence. 

Right:  We  have  been  lacking  something  that  we  have 
needed  most — efficiency. 

326.  As  a  substitute  for  parenthesis  marks. 

Right:  The  more  you  smoke  our  mixture — you  will  soon 
find  this  out — the  more  you  like  it. 

327.  Before  a  word  which  sums  up  the  preceding  part 
of  a  sentence. 

Right:  Wherever  packing  costs  must  be  considered, 
wherever  transportation  charges  are  an  item,  wherever 
safety  on  goods  in  transit  must  be  assured — the  fibre 
board  box  is  replacing  the  wooden  one. 

Right:  "For  the  best  cleanser,  for  an  aid  to  a  clear  com- 
plexion, for  something  that  is  more  than  mere  soap, 
there  is  only  one  thing — PALMOLIVE." 

328.  To  connect  extreme  dates  in  specifying  periods  of 
time:  e.  g.,  1910 — 1914. 


THE  PERIOD  145 

329.  Between   short,   simple   sentences   to   increase   the 
speed  of  the  discourse:  e.  g.,  Look — just  glance  over  these 
bargains — it  will  pay  you — it  means  money  to  you. 

The  Period  (.) 

330.  The  period  is  the  mark  of  finality.     It  indicates 
the  conclusion  of  an  idea. 

331.  The  period  is  used  at  the  end  of  every  declarative 
sentence. 

332.  The  period  is  placed  after  every  abbreviation. 

The  Exclamation  Mark   (!) 

333.  The  exclamation  mark  indicates  strong  feeling.     It 
is  used  after  an  exclamatory  sentence,  clause,  or  interjection. 

Right :    Quality !   That  one  word  tells  our  story. 
Right :    These  prices  can't  be  beaten ! 

334.  The   exclamation    mark    in    parentheses    indicates 
irony. 

Right :    These  are  the  facts  ( ! )  that  convinced  them. 

The  Question  Mark  (?) 

335.  The  question  mark  is  used  after  every  question. 

Parenthesis  Marks  (  ) 

336.  Use  the  parenthesis  marks  to  enclose  a  word  or 
clause  that  is  independent  of  the  sentence. 


146  PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALIZATION 

Right:  He  said  (at  least  he  told  me  so)  that  he  was  here 
on  the  I5th. 

Brackets  [  ] 

337.  Brackets  are  used-  to  enclose  an  explanatory  state- 
ment or  word  inserted  by  some  other  than  the  original  writer 
of  the  sentence. 

Right :  Their  letter  reads :  "We  have  decided  to  turn  over 
this  district  to  Mr.  West  [their  new  salesman]  who 
will  " 

Quotation  Marks  ("  ") 

338.  Use  quotation  marks  to  enclose  quotations  of  the 
exact  words  of  another. 

Wrong:    They  telegraphed  "That  they  were  coming." 
Right:    They  telegraphed,  "We  are  coming." 

339.  Use  single  quotations  (f  ')  to  enclose  a  quotation 
within  a  quotation. 

Right :  He  writes :  "I  have  seen  Mr.  John  Lewis  who  said, 
T  shall  accept  your  offer.' " 

340.  Do  not  use  quotation  marks  to  enclose  well-known 
nicknames,   titles  of   books,   proverbial   phrases,   or  to  indi- 
cate one's  own  literary  invention. 

341.  When  a  quotation  consists  of  several  paragraphs, 
quotation  marks  should  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  each 
paragraph  and  at  the  end  of  the  quotation.     When  a  quota- 
tion mark  and  another  form  of  punctuation  both  follow  the 


THE  APOSTROPHE  147 


same  word,  see  whether  the  punctuation  mark  belongs  to 
the  direct  quotation  or  to  the  sentence  as  a  whole.  Examine 
the  following: 

Wrong:    He  wrote,  "Where  did  you  get  that"? 

Right:     He  wrote,  "Where  did  you  get  that?" 

Wrong:     Did  you  say,  "Ship  at  once?" 

Right:    Did  you  say,  "Ship  at  once"? 

342.  The   period   and   the   comma,    at  the   close   of  a 
quoted  word  or  passage,  are  usually  placed  before  the  quo- 
tation marks,  whether  they  belong  only  to  the  quotation  or 
to  the  sentence  as  a  whole. 

Right:     Don't  use  the  word  "ain't." 

Right:    "Ain't,"  used  for  "am  not,"  is  incorrect. 

343.  No  comma  or  period  need  be  used  in  addition  to 
the  quotation  marks  and  the  question  or  exclamation  mark. 

Wrong:    Did  he  write,  "We  accept"? 

Right :     Did  he  write,  "We  accept"  ? 

Wrong :     We  removed  the  sign,  "Fire  Sale  !,"-,and  then  left. 

Right:    We  removed  the  sign,  "Fire  Salel"  and  then  left. 

The  Apostrophe  (') 

344.  Use   the   apostrophe   to   indicate   the   omission   of 
letters:   e.  g.,  can't,  doesn't,  there's. 

345.  Use  an  apostrophe  to  form  the  possessive  of  reg- 
ularly inflected  nouns.     In  the  singular  number,  the  apos- 
trophe precedes  the  s]  in  the  plural,  the  apostrophe  follows 
the  s. 

Right:     The  clerk's    (singular)   time.     The  clerks'    (plural) 
time.     (See  Rule  57.) 

346.  An  apostrophe  is  not  used  with  the  possessive  ad- 
jectives theirs,  ours,  yours,  his,  hers,  its. 


148          PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALIZATION 
The  Hyphen   (-) 

347.  Use  the  hyphen  when  a  word  must  be  divided  at 
the  end  of  a  line.     Such  words  as  also,  besides,  over,  and 
through  should  not  be  divided. 

348.  To    divide    certain    compound    words.     For    this, 
no  rule  can  be  laid  down,  because  one  must  simply  learn 
from  observation  and  dictionaries  what  is  the  correct  practice 
in  individual  cases. 

349.  Always    use    a    hyphen    with    to-day,    to-morrow, 
to-night,  and  good-bye. 

350.  Never  divide  words  except  at  the  end  of  a  syllable. 
Always  put  the  hyphen  at  the  end  of  the  first  line,  not  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second. 

351.  Avoid  what  is  called  double  punctuation;  that  is, 
the  use  of  two  marks  of  punctuation,  as  a  comma  and  dash 
(, — )   in  the  same  place.     This  rule  does  not  apply  to  the 
use  of  quotation  marks. 

Capitalization 

352.  Capitalize  all  proper  names  and  adjectives  derived 
from  proper  names. 

Right:     German,    Germany,    Paris,    Parisian,    George,   etc. 

353.  Capitalize  the  important  words  in  titles  of  books, 
and  articles,  as,  Imagination  in  Business. 


CAPITALIZATION  149 

354.  Capitalize   the   first   word    of   every   sentence,    of 
every   line   of   poetry,    and    of    every   complete    sentence    if 
quoted. 

Right:    "Can  you  ship  by  Friday?"  he  wrote,  "We  need  it." 

355.  Capitalize  all  titles  when  used  with  proper  nouns. 

Right:    Professor      Smith,      Postmaster      Jones,      Colonel 
Osborne,  etc. 

356.  Capitalize  the  names,  north,  south,  east,  and  west, 
only  when  referring  to  sections  of  country,  not  to  direction. 

Right:    From  Chicago  we  traveled  north. 

Right:    Conditions  in  the  East  were  not  promising. 

357.  Capitalize  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and 
the 'names  of  the  months,  as,  Wednesday.^  Friday,  January, 
March. 

Note:  The  words  spring,  summer,  autumn,  fall,  and 
winter  should  not  be  capitalized  unless  personified  or 
referred  to  specifically:  e.  g.,  At  this  time  we  may  expect 
spring  weather;  but,  the  Spring  of  1915  holds  good 
opportunities  for  our  business. 

358.  Capitalize  the  titles  of   governmental   officers   of 
high  rank,  even  when  used  separately. 

Right:    The  Secretary  of  State  and  the  Attorney  General 
met  in  New  York  City. 


X.    THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 

Editorial  Manuals  for  Typists 

359.  Most   good   business   houses   have   recognized   the 
desirability  of  having  all  their  correspondents  follow  certain 
rules  so  that  their  letters  may  be  standardized  in  appearance. 
From  their  experience  these  houses  have  learned  that  where 
their  letters  are  being  handled  by  thirty  or  forty  different 
correspondents  and  typists,  there  are  thirty  or  forty  different 
styles  in  the  make-up  of  the  letters  going  out  from  the  house. 
By  adopting  a  uniform  policy  in  regard  to  the  make-up  of 
a  letter  and  by  impressing  upon  the  correspondents  the  fact 
that  these  rules  should  be  followed,  so  that  the  mechanical 
arrangement    of   a   letter   may   be   always   the   same,    these 
houses  have  secured  a  definite  form  of  letter. 

360.  It  is  wise,  therefore,  for  any  business  house  that 
has  not  a  manual  of  rules  to  devise  one.     From  the  follow- 
ing pages  on  the  Mechanical  Make-Up  of  a  Letter,  which 
cover  the  most  important  usages  of  the  best  business  houses 
of  the  present  day,  the  head  correspondent  can  choose  those 
rules  which  he  desires  to  make  use  of.     These  rules  can 
then  be  typed  out  and  a  copy  given  to  each  correspondent 
and  typist,  or  this  book  itself  can  be  used  as  a  manual.     If 
it  is  used,  the  head  correspondent  should  indicate,  in  cases 
where  there  is  a  choice  in   arrangement,   the  arrangement 
he  prefers  to  have  used.     In   this  way  all  letters  can  be 
standardized  in  appearance. 

150 


THE   APPEARANCE   OF  THE   LETTER  151 

The  Outward  Appearance  of  the  Letter 

361.  The   outward   appearance  of   a  letter  makes  the 
first  impression  on  the  reader.     In  other  words,  the  general 
appearance  of   the  letter  is  the  first  appeal   that  it  makes 
to  the  average  man.     It  is  important,   therefore,  that  the 
letter  shall  present  as  good  an  appearance  as  possible.     The 
general  appearance  of  a  letter  has  to  do  with  all  the  externals 
that  catch  the  reader's  eye,  such  as  arrangement,  typing  (or 
hand  writing) ,  paper,  and  so  on.    These  externals  are  called 
the  mechanical  make-up  of  a  letter. 

362.  The  kind  of  paper  as  to  size,  color,  and  quality 
used  in  business  correspondence  depends  upon  the  following 
points:  the  person  or  class  of  persons  to  whom  the  letter 
is  sent,  the  business  house  from  which  it  comes,  the  purpose 
of  the  letter,  and  the  cost.     In  every  case  paper  should  be 
selected  which  will  meet  the  expectations  of  the  recipient. 
In   ordinary   business   correspondence   the   paper   is   a   sheet 
8^x11  inches  to  fit  the  standard  envelope  6^/2  x  3j4  inches. 
It  is  unruled  and  preferably  white  or  of  some  light  tint.     In 
interdepartmental  work,  paper  of  different  colors  is  used  to 
show  from  what  department  the  letter  came  and   to  help 
in  the  handling.     The  letter  that  goes  outside  the  business 
firm  should  be  of  as  good  a  grade  as  the  firm  can  afford  to 
use.    Bond  papers  are  most  extensively  used  by  business  firms. 

363.  In  sales-letter  work,  results  have  shown  that  the 
kind  of  paper  used  should  be  adapted  to  the  class  of  per- 
sons to  whom  the  letter  is  sent.     To  women,  to  the  pro- 
fessional classes,  to  the  wealthy,  and  so  on,  only  the  best 
quality  of  paper  should  be  sent.     A  note-paper  size,  smaller 


152     THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 

than  the  ordinary  8^2  x  1 1  inch  business  letter-head  is  used, 
with  envelopes  to  match.  With  farmers  and  with  others 
on  whom  little  impression  is  made  by  external  appearances, 
a  lower  quality  of  paper  is  used.  Variations  in  size  and 
color,  however,  are  used  to  secure  different  effects  with  these 
classes. 

364.  The  mechanical  make-up  of  a  letter  has  six  parts, 
the  heading,  the  inside  address,  the  salutation,  the  body  of 
the  letter,  the  complimentary  close,  and  the  signature. 

The  Printed  Heading 

365.  The  business  letter-head   gives  the   name  of   the 
firm,  its  address,  the  nature  of  the  business,  and  sometimes 
the  names  of  the  officers.     It  may  also  contain  the  telephone 
number  and   other  essential  information.      It  should  never 
contain  unessential  facts  since  the  heading  is  not  the  impor- 
tant part  of  the  letter  and  should  not  be  made  so  by  colored 
pictures  of  the  products  or  buildings  of  the  firm,  and  long 
lists  of  directors.     The  simpler  the  letter-head,  the  better 
chance  has  the  message  in  the  body  of  the  letter  to  secure 
the  undivided  attention  of  the  reader.     It  should  not  occupy 
more  than  one-fifth  of  the  sheet  and  should  not  extend  down 
the  margins  for  advertising  purposes. 

366.  Headings  printed  in  script  are  not  easily  read  and 
are  out  of  harmony  with  the  typewritten  letter. 

367.  The    head    may    be    lithographed,    engraved,    or 
printed,  and  the  color  should  usually  be  black.    Other  colors 
are  sometimes-  effectively  used,  but  black  ink  on  white  paper 
is  the  safe  and  correct  form. 


THE   PRINTED   HEADING 


153 


Colliert, 


NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY 
SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE 
ACCOUNTS  AND  FINANCE 


THE  NATIONAL  SHAWMUT  BANK 

BOSTON  MASa 


SPELLMAN   &  SPELLMAN. 


HENRY  L.DOHERTY  &COMPA.'Y 


The  House  of  Kuppenheimer 


CHICAGO  NEW  Y 


FIG.  3 
Examples  of  Good  Letter  Heads 


154    THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 
Written  Heading 

368.  When  the  heading  is  written  by  hand  it  takes  the 
following  forms: 

25  West  Eighth  St., 
New  York   City> 
July  8,  1914. 

or 

25  West  Eighth  St., 
New  York  City, 
July  8,  1914- 

369.  It  will  be  noted  that  this  heading  contains  the  street 
address,  the  city  address,  the  state  address,  and  also  the  date. 
The  heading  should  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the  letter  close 
to  the  right  hand  margin. 

Note:  It  is  a  practice  of  some  writers  to  omit  all 
punctuation  at  the  ends  of  the  several  lines  of  the 
written  heading. 

370.  It  is  better  never  to  abbreviate  the  name  of  the 
state  when  the  abbreviation  is  likely  to  be  confused  with  the 
abbreviation  of  the  name  of  another  state. 

Wrong:    St.  Joseph,  Mo. 
Right:    St.  Joseph,  Missouri. 

371.  No  word  or  sign  should  be  placed  before  the  street 
number. 

Wrong:    §33  Main   St., 

Waterbury,   Connecticut. 
Wrong:    No.  33  Main  St., 

Waterbury,   Connecticut. 


THE  WRITTEN  HEADING  155 

372.  The  street  and  avenue  numbers  up  to  and  includ- 
ing ten  should  be  spelled  out  in  full. 

Wrong:    754  5th  Avenue. 
Right:    754  Fifth  Avenue. 

373.  The  date  should  consist  of  the  month,  the  num- 
ber of  the  day,  and  the  number  of  the  year.     Do  not  use 
a  number  for  the  month  and  do  .not  abbreviate  the  year. 

Wrong:    8-5-'i4. 

8/5/14. 
Right:    August  5,  1914. 

Note:  Although  on  the  face  of  it,  the  use  of  the  num- 
ber of  the  month  and  of  the  year  seems  to  be  more 
efficient  than  the  use  of  the  month  written  out  in  full, 
nevertheless,  the  reader  is  often  confused  in  trying  to 
find  out  exactly  what  month  is  meant.  In  many  Euro- 
pean countries  8-5-'i4  would  be  read  the  8th  of  May,  1914. 

374.  In  ordinary  business  letters  the  numbers  and  the 
date  should  not  be  written  out  in  full. 

Wrong:     May  fifth,  Nineteen  hundred  and  fourteen. 

Note :  In  certain  cases,  however,  such  as  official  letters, 
the  date  is  spelled  out  to  secure  a  greater  formality. 

375.  The  number  of  the  day  should  not  be  followed 
by  d,  ndf  rd,  st,  or  th. 

Incorrect:    May  5th,  1914. 
Correct:    May  5,  1914. 

Note:  This  rule  holds  good  when  referring  in  the 
body  of  the  letter  to  the  date. 

376.  The  entire  heading  even  though  it  be  short  should 
never  be  written  on  one  line.     As  a  rule,  the  date  is  on  a 
separate  line. 


156     THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 


c 

)   10          35             7i 

) 

3/4 

i  ^ 

Heading 

int 

in* 

Address 

Salutation 

Body  of  Letter 

<D 

00 

s 

•H 

-  <D 

O 

Margin  L 

5       i 
2      §i 

.3            -H: 
§* 

j^                Q)  • 

SP 
fj         -g: 

s    § 

f^l                O; 
1 

:  Closing 

IH 
H 

Signature 

8|  Inches 

FIG.  4 
The  Mechanical  Arrangement  of  a  Letter 


THE  INSIDE  ADDRESS  157 

Inside  Address 

377.  The  name  and  address  of  a  person  to  whom  the 
letter  is  directed  is  placed  at  the  left  hand  side  of  the  page 
below  the  heading.     Its  distance  below  the  heading  depends 
upon   the  arrangement   of  the  matter   in   the  body  of  the 
letter.     These  two  forms  are  used: 

The    Smith    Hardware    Company, 
35  Broadway, 
New  York  City. 

or 

The    Smith    Hardware    Company, 
35  Broadway, 

New  York  City. 

378.  The  inside  address  contains  the  name  of  the  firm 
and  its  address,   consisting  of  the  street  and  number,  and 
the  city  and  state.     The  street  address  need  not  be  given, 
but  the  best  usage  is  to  include  it. 

379.  Do   not   use   the  word   city   alone  in   the   inside 
address. 

Wrong:    Mr.  John  Jones, 

415  Seventh  Avenue, 
City. 

380.  According  to  custom  some  title  precedes  the  name 
of  the  person  or  firm.     The  commonest  titles  are:     Mrs., 
Miss,  Mr.,  Messrs.,  Dr.,  Hon.,  Rev.,  Prof. 


158    THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 

381.  The  title  Esq.   (Esquire)    follows  the  name  of  a 
person.     In  business  letters,  however,  it  is  at  present  very 
little  used.    When  it  is  used,  omit  the  title  Mr. 

Wrong:    Mr.  Francis  T.  Jones,  Esq. 
Right:    Francis  T.  Jones,  Esq. 

or 
Mr.  Francis  T.  Jones. 

382.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  title  Miss  is  not  now 
considered  an  abbreviated  form  and  is  therefore  not  followed 
by  a  period. 

383.  The  title  Messrs,  is  an  abbreviation  of  Messieurs. 
A  common  error  is  to  write  Messers.  or  Mess. 

384.  Messrs,  is  used  as  a  title  in  addressing  two  or  more 
persons  engaged  in  business  under  a  firm  title,  but  is  not 
used  when  addressing  under  an  impersonal  corporation  title. 

Right:    Messrs.   Meyer  and  Ayers, 
Chicago,    Illinois. 

or 
Meyer  and  Ayers, 

Chicago,    Illinois. 

Wrong:    Messrs.  U.  S.  Steel  Corporation. 
Right:    The  U.   S.  Steel  Corporation. 

385.  Such  initial  titles  as  Ph.D.,  M.A.,  etc.,  and  titles 
such  as  President,  Secretary,  Cashier,  etc.,  follow  the  name 
of  the  person  addressed ;  as,  Prof.  Perley  Thorne,  M.S.,  New 
York  University,  New  York  City. 


THE  INSIDE  ADDRESS  159 

Right:    Mr.  J.  P.  Morgan,  President, 
Jones,  Morgan  Company, 
Waterbury,  Conn. 

or 

J.  P.  Morgan,  President, 
Jones,  Morgan  Company, 
Waterbury,  Conn. 

386.  The  inside  address  of  a  letter  presenting  a  report 
or  the  like  is  as  follows : 

To  the  President  and  Board  of  Directors 

of  the  Manhattan  Brass  Company, 
New  York  City,  New  York. 

Gentlemen : 

or 

Sirs: 

387.  In  official  letters  the  inside  address  is  placed  in 
the  lower  left  hand  part  of  the  letter,  slightly  below  the 
signature  but  beginning  at  the  left  hand  margin. 

388.  Many  firms  do  not  put  the  street  address  of  the 
addressee  in  the  inside  address.     Of  course  it  is  necessary 
to  have  the  inside  address  contain  the  street  number  if  a 
window  envelope  is  used. 


1.60    THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 


»       /,, 

1 

H«raim3 

_   .     T 

November  17,  1913. 

•*%«  —  ' 

Mr.  John 
118  Soutl 

New  .York 

M.  Hewitt,^ 
Street, 
City. 

»-*/«  -i 

Pear  Sir: 

You  probt 

bly  noticed  in  my  letter 

of  November  10  that  I  spoke  about 

it. 

y   g 

6 

You,  of  ( 

ourse,  are  interested  in 

making  profits.  The  best  way  to' 

pense  th£ 

t  you  have  t6  meet  is  tha 

t  of  repairs  to  electrical  appar- 

or  merelj 

the  wiring  of  a  building 

for  bells  or  lights. 

Sdany  of  t 

hese  repairs  could  have  b 

een  avoided  if  the  work  of  Instal- 

avoided,  but  became  necdfesary 
unforseen.    A  flicker,  a  flash, 
t  of  order.   what  you  want  is 

\ 

Other  rej; 
through  t 
^  and  yot 
action  - 

airs  oould  not  have  been 
ie  happening  of  something 
r  electrical  system  is  ou 
and  quick  action. 

With  my  < 
with  my  i 
fast  ser-v 

xpert  electricians  at  han 
actory  and  supply-rooms  R 
ice  and,  what  is  more,  go 

d,  with  my  emergency  automobiles, 
t  -mv  disposal,  -  I  can  give  you 

od  work. 

Call  me  \ 
and  then 

p  at  110-Party  Z  Jersey  C 
[  can  come  to  see  you  per 

ity,  or  mall  the  enclosed  card, 
sonally. 

Yours  truly, 

*^P%^.  Jones, 

Sales  Manager. 

J 

i 

r 

1    1 

h             {T  £  S                                ^ 

vr  .                    •         f  ~  ».                               ^  ,  ,T 

FIG.  5 
The  Mechanical  Arrangement  of  a  Letter 


THE  SALUTATION  161 

The  Salutation 


389.  The  complimentary  address  at   the  beginning  of 
a  letter  is  named  the  salutation.     In  business  letters  it  is 
practically   limited    to   four   forms:    Dear  Sir,    Gentlemen, 
Dear  Madam,  and  Ladies  or  Mes dames.     Dear  Madam  is 
used  in  addressing  a  woman,  whether  married  or  unmarried. 
More  formality  is  shown  by  the  use  of  the  salutation  My 
dear  Sir  and  My  dear  Madam.     Note  that  the  first  letter 
of  the  second  word  is  not  a  capital.     In  exceptional  cases, 
as  in  writing  to  government  officials,  the  plain  and  highly 
formal  Sir  is  used.     If  the  writer  is  personally  acquainted 
with  the  addressee  or  has  corresponded  with  him  before,  he 
may  use  My  dear  Mr.  Fox  or  Dear  Mr.  Fox. 

390.  The  salutation  should  be  written  flush  with  the 
left-hand  margin   and  in  alignment  with  the  first  line  of 
the  address.     It  occupies  a  line  by  itself: 

Brooks  Brothers, 
936  Broadway, 
New  York  City. 

Gentlemen : 

391.  Never  use  the  salutations  Dear  Friend,  My  dear 
friend,  and  Dear  Miss. 

392.  Do  not  use  the  abbreviation  Messrs,  as  a  salutation. 

Wrong:    Rogers  Peet  Co., 

New  York  City,  New  York. 

Messrs : 


162     THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 

Right:    Rogers  Peet  Co., 

New  York  City,  New  York. 

Gentlemen : 

393.  Dear  Sirs  has  of  recent  years  become  obsolete. 

394.  In  addressing  such  firms  as  John  Wanamaker  or 
John  Butler,  Inc.,  the  correct  salutation  is  Gentlemen  be- 
cause these  firms  are  corporations.     This  is  the  correct  form 
also  when  a  firm  is  composed  of  men. 

395.  Never  use  a  name  alone  as  a  salutation. 

Wrong:    Mr.  John  Heaton: 

Will  you  let  me  know 

Right:    My  dear  Mr.  Heaton: 

Will  you  let  me  know 


396.  Avoid  such  abbreviated  forms  as  D'r.,  Gents,  S'r. 

397.  The  salutation  is  followed  by  a  colon,  or  a  comma, 
never  by  a  semi-colon.     The  dash  is  unnecessary  and  need 
not  be  used. 

398.  In   official   letters   the   salutation   is   Sir,   Sirs,   or 
sometimes  Gentlemen. 

The  Body  of  the  Letter 

399.  Before  the  letter  is  typed   or  written  the  writer 
should  judge  the  amount  of  material  that  is  to  go  on  the 
sheet  and  plan  for  the  space  accordingly.     If  a  typewriting 
machine  is  used   the  margins  at  the  sides  should  be  made 


ARRANGEMENT    OF   TYPING 


163 


............  ACCOUNTS  A 


Poor  Display. 


Good  Display. 


Poor  Display. 


Good  Display. 


Fig.  6 


164      THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 


me  9 

Pag*  9 

amount  Involved  and  at  the  amount  which  1* 

A*  these  overdue  accounts  come  to  your  notice  each  month. 

gradually  going  Into  the  debit  column  of  th* 
profit  and  loss  account.      A  good  collection 

you  will  be  astonished  at  the  amount  Involved  and  at  the 

amount  which  Is  gradually  going  Into  the  debit  column  of 

the  profit  and  lot*  account.       A  good  collection  system 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  TUB  CKAMOB 

When  customers  receive  prompt  replies  to  their  letter* 
and  perceive  that  their  claims  are  adjusted  quickly,  they 

Reconciled        When  customers  receive  prompt  replle*  to  their 

will  be  pleaeea  to  check  any  statement  that  ooraes  from 
this  company.       Eventually,  good  feeling  will  develop. 

Justed  quickly,  they  will  be  pleased  to  check 
any  statement  that  comes  from  this  Company. 

and  account*  can  be  reconciled  more  readily. 

eventually,  good  feeling  will  develop,  and 

A  collection  system  that  brings  In  the  money  without  hurt- 

Ing  the  customers'   feelings  means  more  business  for  the 

Company  because  the  customers  who  are  treated  with  tact  re- 

Steady and         A  collection  system  that  brings  in  the  money 

trains  customer*  to  pay  up  on  time,  month  after  month.     They 

customer*           more  business  for  the  Company  because  the  cus- 

tomers who  are  treated  *lth  tact  remain  cue- 

cannot  evade  It.     Prompt  payment*  will   Increase  our  caeh  or 

over,  trains  customers  to  pay  up  on  time)  month 

after  month.       They  sense  the  system  In  back  of 

Any  effort  put   fortn  to  please  a  customer  will   re-establish 

the  lettere  and  Know  that  they  cannot  evade  It. 

confidence  between  our  firm  and  the  customer.         He  can  be 

Prompt  payments  will   Increase  our  caah  on  hand. 

taught  from  experience  that  our  house  can  be  relied  upon. 

A*  goodwill  develops,  we  can  obtain  favor*  from  him,  such  as 
requesting  him  not  to  deduct  claim*  from  remittance*  until 

eecured              re-e*tabllsh  confidence  between  our  firm  and  th* 

customer.       he  can  be  taught  from  experience  that 

our  home  can  be  relied  upon.      As  goodwill  de- 

wedlt?*  haY"  ' 

rage  9 

Collection  *yetem 

P««.  9 

ts  these  overdue  account*  come  to  your  notice  each 

and  at  the  amount  which  I*  gradually  going  Into  the 
debit  column  of  the  profit  and  loss  account.     A  good 

Collection      A.  these  overdue  account,  come  to  your  notice 

collection  system  can  overcome  much  of  thle. 

amount   Involved  and  at  trie  amount  which  I* 

gradually  going  Into  the  debit  column  of  the  profit  and  loss 

TUB  KF7BCT3  OP  THB  CHAIQK 

Account.       A  good  collection  system  can  overcome  ouch  of  this. 

THE  EFFECTS  OP  THE  CHANOS 

Reconciled  account* 
fnen  cuitoner*  receive  prompt  replies  to  their  letter* 

Reconciled      When  customers  receive  prompt  replle*  to  their 

and  perceive  that  their  claim*  are  adjusted  quickly, 
.hey  will  be  plesued  to  check  any  statement  that  com** 
from  this  company.       Eventually,  good  feeling  will  de- 
velop, and  accounts  can  be  reconciled  more  readily. 

Justed  quickly,  they  will  be  pleased  to  check 
any  statement  that  coma,  from  this  company.       Eventually, 
good  feeling  will  develop,  and  account*  can  be  reconciled 
more  readily. 

Steady  and  trained  customer. 

Steady  f-id      A  collection  system  that  bring*  In  the  money 

A  collection  .y.te.  that  bring.  In  the  .one,  without 

trained             without  hurting  the  customers'    feeling*  mean. 

hurting  the  customers'   feeling*  means  more  biulne.a  for 

tomer*.       An  effective  collection  system,  moreover,  train* 

tact  remain  cu«tomer*.       An  effective  collection  *7>t*°. 

the  eyeten  In  back  of  the  letter*  and  know  that  they  cannot 

after  month.       They   sense  th*  system  In  back  of  the 

evade  It.       wompt  payment*  will   increase  our  cash  on  hand. 

Tetters  and  know  that  tney  cannot  evade  It.     Prosjr-t  pay- 

ments wlU   Increase  oiy  caah  on  band. 

Goodwill          Any  effort  put  forth  to  pleas*  a  customer  will 

•ecured            re-establish  confidence  between  our  firm  and 

Goodwill  secured 

duct  claim*  from  remittance*  until  w*  have  Investigated  th* 

Any  effort  pat  forth  to  please  n  customer  will  r*-es- 

tabl'.ah  corfldence  between  our  firm  and  the  ou»to»*r.     He 

can  be  taught  from  experience  that  our  house  can  b*  relied 

upon.     A*  goodwill  develope,  we  can  obtain  favor*  from  hln. 

until  w*  have  Investigated  the  claim  and  passed  credit. 

Fig.  7 

Examples  of  the  Different  Mechanical  Arrangements  of  a 
Page  of  a  Report 


THE  COMPLIMENTARY  CLOSE  165 


deep  provided  that  the  letter  is  short,  because  a  short  letter 
will  occupy  little  space,  and  this  space  should  be  as  near 
in  the  center  of  the  page  as  possible. 

400.  All  paragraphs  are  to  be  indented  an  equal  distance 
from  the  margin,  say  ten  spaces  or  one  inch  regardless  of 
the  length  of  the  salutation.     It  is  also  wise  to  use  double 
space  between  the  paragraphs.     Some  firms  use  no  indention 
but  begin  each  paragraph  flush  with  the  margin.     In  this 
case  paragraphs  are   indicated   by   double  or  triple   spacing 
between  the  paragraphs.     In  the  illustration  on  Page   160 
may  be  seen  the  correct  forms  of  a  typewritten  letter. 

401.  If  the  letter  is  written  in  hand-writing,  the  space 
between    the    paragraphs    should    be    double    that   between 
other  lines. 

402.  Business   houses   should   see   that   all   their  corre- 
spondence conforms  to  a  certain  definite  plan,  so  that  the 
appearance  of  the  letter  may  be  standardized. 

Complimentary  Close 

403.  The  complimentary  close  follows  the  body  of  the 
letter.     As  a  rule  it  begins  in  the  middle  of  the  page. 

404.  The  following   forms  are  most  used   in  business 
letters:    Yours  truly,  Truly  yours,  Very  truly  yours,  Yours 
very  truly,  Yours  respectfully. 

405.  In    official    letters    the    complimentary    close    is 
Respectfully,  Respectfully  submitted,  or  Yours  respectfully. 


166      THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 

406.  Do  not  use  any  abbreviation  such  as  Y'rs  or  Resp'y 
in  the  complimentary  close.     Do  not  write  respectively  for 
respectfully.     Do  not  use  and  oblige,  in  place  of  a  compli- 
mentary close. 

407.  In   the  complimentary  close   only   the  first  word 
should  begin  with   a  capital.     The  proper  punctuation   at 
the  end  is  a  comma.     Such  expressions  as  Believe  me,  I  beg 
to  remain,  I  am,  I  remain,  etc.,  should  not  be  used,  for  they 
are  unnecessary  and  weaken  the  end. 

The  Signature 

408.  The   signature    follows   the   complimentary   close, 
a  little  below  and  to  the  right  so  that  it  ends  at  the  right 
hand  margin. 

409.  In  letters   from  firms,   the  firm  name  should  be 
typewritten  and  below  it  should  come  the  written  signature 
of  the  person  directly  responsible  for  the  letter.     Sometimes 
his  signature  is  preceded  by  the  word  By  and  followed  by  his 
title- such  as  President,  Secretary,  Cashier,  and  the  like.   This 
title  is  also  typewritten. 

410.  On  account  of  the  illegibility  of  many  signatures, 
some  business  houses  adopt  the  practice  of  typing  the  name 
of  the  writer.     Below  this  the  writer  signs  his  name.     This 
assures  that  in  an  answering  letter  the  writer  of  the  first 
letter  is  correctly  addressed. 

411.  The  signature  of  the  writer,  if  a  man,  should  not 
be  preceded  by  any  title,  such  as  Mr.,  Prof.,  or  Dr. 


OTHER  POINTS   ABOUT   THE  LETTER  167 

412.  A  married  woman  signs  her  full  name    (this  in- 
cludes her  maiden  name)   and  places  immediately  below,  in 
parentheses,  her  married  name. 

Anna  Templeton  Parsons 
(Mrs.  Edward  F.  Parsons} 

413.  An  unmarried  woman  signs  her  name  with  Miss 
in  parentheses  before  it. 


Other  Points  About  the  Letter 

414.  The  postscript  is  sometimes  added  to  business  let- 
ters.    The  letters  P.   £.,   however,   are   no  longer  used   to 
label  it.     Formerly  the  postscript  was  used  to  express  some 
idea  which  had  been  forgotten.     Now,  whenever  it  is  em- 
ployed, it  is  for  the  purpose  of  emphasizing  some  important 
idea;  for  example,  "Remember — in  order  to  take  advantage 
of  this  offer  we  must  receive  your  post-card  by  April  24th." 
Since  it  stands  out  as  occupying  a  unique  place  in  the  letter, 
it   should   be   used   to   contain   an   important   idea   and   not 
simply  the  last  thought  of  the  writer. 

415.  Such  expressions  as  Dictated  but  signed  in  my  ab- 
sence, Dictated  but  not  corrected  after  transcribed.  Dictated 
but     not     read.     Dictated     but     not     signed,     etc.,     should 
never    be    used,    for    they    are    discourteous    to    the    reader 
of  the   letter. 

416.  The  identity  of  the  dictator  and  transcriber  of  the 
message  should  never  become  obtrusive.     Expressions  such  as 


168     THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 

Dictated  by  Mr.  John  F.  Royal  to  Miss  White,  Dictated 
by  Mr.  JoneSj  etc.,  should  be  omitted.  When  identification 
is  absolutely  necessary  it  should  be  made  by  initials,  such  as 
EJK-C.  Every  mark  or  expression  that  does  not  help  the 
message  in  the  main  part  of  the  letter  should  remain  incon- 
spicuous, as  otherwise  it  distracts  attention  from  the  body 
of  the  letter. 

417.  Enclosures  should  be  indicated  by  the  abbreviation 
End.  placed  next  to  the  lower  left-hand  margin ;  e.  g.,  j 
Ends. 

418.  Only  one  side  of  the  paper  should  be  used  whether 
the  letter  is  written  in  handwriting  or  typed.     When  more 
than  one  sheet  is  necessary   to  contain   the  message,   plain 
sheets  without  the  letter  head  but  of  the  same  size  and  ma- 
terial as  the  letter  head  should  be  used.    At  the  top  of  these 
additional  sheets  is  placed  the  number  of  the  sheet  and  the 
initials  or  the  name  of  the  firm  or  person  to  whom  the  letter 
is  sent,  as, 

Trie  Century  Company          2. 

419.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  last  sheet  of  the 
letter   does  not  contain   only  the  complimentary  close  and 
the  signature.     The  use  of  a  little  judgment  will  prevent 
that. 

420.  In   folding  the  letter,   fold   up   the  bottom  edge 
until  it  is  exactly  even  with  the  top  edge  or  one-half  inch 
from  the  top  edge  and  crease ;  then  fold  over  from  the  right 


THE   ENVELOPE  169. 


a  little  more  than  one-third  of  the  letter  and  crease.  The 
remainder  of  the  letter  is  folded  over  from  the  left.  The 
free  edge  of  the  letter  is  thus  slightly  below  the  right-hand 
crease.  It  should  be  placed  in  the  envelope  with  the  free 
edge  toward  yourself. 

421.  The  personal  attention  of  a  certain  individual  in 
a  firm  is  secured  to  a  matter  of  the  firm's  business  by  the 
expression  Attention  of  Mr.  Johns  written  in  the  center  of 
the  page.    This  may  be  placed  below  the  salutation  or  above 
the  inside  address.    The  former  position  is  preferable. 

The  Envelope 

422.  In  business  correspondence  the  '-envelope  is  prefer- 
ably  of  the  standard   size,    6^x3%   inches.     The  return 
address  of  the  sender  should  always  be  printed  or  written  in 
the  upper  left-hand  corner.     It  should  not  be  large  or  con- 
spicuous, and  should  never  be  used  for  advertising  purposes. 
In  many  cases,  as  in  sales-letters  to  women  and  professional 
classes,  a  return  card  or  return  address  is  printed  on  the  flap 
of  the  envelope.     This  gives  more  of  a  social  appearance  to 
the  letter  and  is  of  aid  in  getting  better  results  from  these 
classes.     In  such  cases  the  size  of  the  envelope  used  is  that 
commonly   called   "Baronial,"  which   measures  about  4x5 
inches. 

423.  The  address  should  begin  slightly  below  the  middle 
of  the  envelope  and  should  be  well  centered.     Two  forms 
are  used  just  as  in  the  inside  address. 


170      THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 

The    Smith    Hardware    Company, 
35  Broadway, 

New  York  City. 

or 

The    Smith    Hardware    Company, 
35  Broadway, 
New  York  City. 

424.  When  the  straight  edge  form  is  used  in  the  inside 
address  this  form  should  also  be  used  on  the  envelope.     The 
main  thing  to  be  considered  is  that  the  address  should  be 
well  balanced. 

425.  The  order  of  the  address  is  usually  as  follows: 
first  line,  name  of  addressee;  second  line,  street  address  or 
box  number;  third  line,  city  or  town,  and  state  or  country; 
or  the  state  or  country  may  be  placed  on  the  fourth  line. 

426.  The  personal  attention  of  a  certain  individual  in  a 
firm  is  secured  to  a  matter  of  the  firm's  business  by  the  ex- 
pression (Attention  of  Mr.  Johns)  placed  in  the  lower  left- 
hand  corner  of  the  envelope. 

427.  The  envelope  should  have  no  unsightly  blots,  finger 
prints,  or  erasures.     It  is  better  to  re-write  the  letter  entirely 
than  to  take  any  chance  of  marring  the  effect  of  an  otherwise 
perfect  page  by  any  of  these  blemishes.      Correctness  and 
neatness  in  a  letter  are  of  vital  importance  in  winning  a  pas- 
sage to  the  favorable  consideration  of  the  reader. 


OFFICIAL  LETTERS  171 

Official  Letters 

428.  Official  letters  are  used  in  writing  about  matters 
that  are  outside  the  scope  of  regular  business.     Any  letter 
that  is  written  by  or  to  an  official,  or  to  a  business  man  on 
any  other  question  than  those  which  come  up  in  the  regular 
routine  of  business,  may  be  considered  an  official  letter, 

429.  The   stationery   used   in   these   letters   is   different 
from  that  used   for  other  business  communications.     As   a 
rule,  it  is  smaller  in  size,  of  folder  form,  and  similar  to  social 
stationery.     When  four-page  folder  sheets  are  used  the  fold 
should  be  at  the  right;  or,  in  other  words,  that  page  which 
is  ordinarily  the  back  page  of  the  folder  is  the  first  page  to 
be  written  on.     If  a  second  page  is  necessary,  the  other  out- 
side page   is  used.     When   three   or   four  pages  are   to  be 
written  on,  the  best  order  is  the  natural,  as  1,  2,  3,  4;  and 
not,  1,  2,  4,  3  or  1,  4,  2,  3. 

430.  A  small  letter  head  is  regularly  used.     This  con- 
tains regularly  only  the  name,  official  business,  and  address  of 
the  sender;  sometimes  only  the  address. 

431.  There  are  two  classes  of  official  letters,  the  formal 
and  the  informal. 

Formal  Official  Letters 

432.  The  formal  letter  is  sent  to  government  officials, 
members  of  Congress,  officers  of  the  army  and   navy,   and 
others  in  high  position,   and   generally  to  all  business  men 
except    those   with   whom    the   writer   is   on   a   footing   of 
familiarity. 


172     THE  MECHANICAL  MAKE-UP  OF  A  LETTER 

433.  The  mechanical  form  of  the  formal  official  letter 
differs    from    that    of    other    business    letters.      The    inside 
address  is  written  at  the  close  of  the  letter  at  the  left-hand 
side.     In  it,  all  titles  are  given  in  full.     No  abbreviations 
should  be  used. 

434.  The  salutation  is  "Sir"  or  "Sirs".     The  compli- 
mentary close  is  "Respectfully"  or  "Very  respectfully". 

435.  In  the  body  of  the  letter,  the  strictest  formality  is 
observed.    No  abbreviations  or  colloquial  expressions  are  per- 
missible.    Very  frequently  the  third  person  is  used  through- 
out  in   speaking  of   the  writer.     The   language   is   stately, 
formal  and  dignified  to  the  point  of  coldness. 

Informal  Official  Letters 

436.  Informal    official   letters   are   used   in   writing   to 
business  men,   who  are  on   terms  of  familiarity  with  each 
other,  about  matters  outside  the  routine  of  business.     The 
very   informal,    conversational    tone   is   desirable.      The   in- 
formal official  letter  has  character,  whereas  the  formal  official 
letter  is  characterless. 

437.  As  in  the  formal  official  letter,  the  inside  address 
is  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  sheet  at  the  end  of 
the  letter. 

438.  The  salutation  is  informal;  as,  "Dear  Johnston", 
"Dear  Mr.  Johnston",  "Dear  Fred",  or  any  other  salutation 
the  writer  pleases  to  use.     The  complimentary  close  may  be 
"Sincerely",  "Cordially",  or  "Faithfully",  and  others  of  like 
tenor. 


Q.    THE  COMPOSITION  AS  A  WHOLE 

How  Effective  Writing  May  be  Secured 

439.  In   a  preceding  chapter    (Rules    18-25)    the  five 
qualities  of   the   successful   business   message   were   defined. 
These  qualities  must  be  judged  from  the  reader's  viewpoint. 
A  letter  that  is  clear  to  the  writer  but  not  to  the  reader 
could  not  be  said  to  have  the  quality  of  clearness.     This 
chapter  is  concerned  not  so  much  with  the  finished  result 
as  viewed  by  the  reader  as  with  the  principles  of  construction 
which  aid  the  writer  in  securing  an  effective  composition. 

440.  The  writer  knows  that  if  his  message  is  to  be  read 
and  is  to  make  a  good  impression  upon  the  mind  of  the 
reader,  the  medium  of  the  message — the  English — must  have 
the  five  qualities  mentioned  above.     He  must  also  know  the 
principles  which   will   aid   him   to  construct   the   letter   or 
advertisement   so  that   it   will   have   those   qualities.     This 
chapter  on  the  composition  as  a  whole  explains  and  illustrates 
these  principles. 

The  Three  Principles  of  Effective  Writing 

441.  The  principles  of  construction  are  unity,  coherence, 
and  emphasis.     These  principles  are  not  primarily  and  pe- 
culiarly rhetorical  laws ;  they  are  deductions,  crystallized  into 
rules,  drawn  from  experiences  that  have  shown  that  ideas 
and  thoughts  presented  in  a  certain  method  are  most  easily 
and  quickly  taken  in  and  understood  by  the  mind  of  the 

173 


174  THE   COMPOSITION    AS    A    WHOLE 

average  person.  In  other  words,  the  three  principles  of 
unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  are  natural  laws.  The  writer 
who  applies  them  will  usually  find  that  his  ideas  and  feelings 
are  conveyed  clearly  and  effectively. 

The  Principle  of  Unity 

442.  Unity  is  the  principle  of  selection.     It  has  for  its 
purpose  the  making  of  a  single,  definite  impression  upon  the 
mind  of  the  reader  by  presenting  a  single,  definite  idea.    To 
achieve  this  purpose,   the  writer  must  select  from  all  the 
available  ideas  only  those  that  will  contribute  to  the  one  idea 
he  wishes  to  impress. 

443.  The  average  brain  cannot  easily  grasp  two  different 
ideas  at  the  same  time.     Especially  in  business  is  this  fact  of 
importance.      In   actual  business  work   there   are  so   many 
distractions  and   so  many   problems   demanding   a  business 
man's  attention  that,  unless  a  message  has  a  singleness  of 
purpose,    it   will   not   readily  be  understood.      The   writer 
should  concentrate  on  one  idea. 

444.  In  the  selection  of  those  facts  and  ideas  which  are 
to  aid  in  the  thorough   development  of  the  main   idea  or 
purpose,  the  writer  must  exercise  his  judgment.     In  many 
cases  this  judgment  is  founded  on  business  experience.     The 
experienced  advertising  man  or  sales-letter  writer,   for  ex- 
ample, has  learned  to  select  just  those  closely  related  points 
that  will  carry  across  to  the  reader  the  main  idea. 

445.  Before  writing  a  business  message,  the  writer  should 
see  and  clearly  understand  its  main  idea  or  purpose.     In  an- 
swering a  complaint  letter,  for  instance,  the  purpose  is,  usually, 
to  conciliate  the  complainant  so  that  he  will  continue  to  do 


THE    PRINCIPLE    OF   UNITY  175 

business  with  the  writer.  All  material  should  be  included 
which  is  essential  to  accomplish  this  purpose.  If  the  writer's 
aim  is  to  get  a  direct  sale  from  his  letter,  he  should  work  to 
that  end.  If  his  aim  is  to  get  an  inquiry  which  he  is  to  follow 
up  later,  he  should  strive  to  make  every  idea  in  the  letter 
subordinate  to  that  aim.  If  the  writer  does  not  know  pre- 
cisely what  course  of  action  he  desires  the  reader  to  take, 
how  can  he  expect  the  reader  to  know? 

446.  The  writer  should  be  sure  that  his  letter  contains 
the  points  essential  to  the  completeness  of  his  message.     If 
he  is  writing  a  letter  ordering  goods,  he  should  see  that  that 
letter  contains  all  the  information  that  is  necessary  for  the 
rilling  of  the  order. 

447.  At  the  same  time  the  writer  should  exercise  his 
judgment  in  excluding  all  those  non-essentials  which  would 
only  obscure   and  clog  the  thought,   for  every  fact  that  is 
not  needed  to  help  the  development  and  completeness  of  the 
thought  hinders  its  comprehension.     The  writer  should  also 
see  to  it  that  his  composition  does  not  contain  non-essentials, 
for  unity  means  not  only  the  inclusion  of  essentials  but  also 
the  exclusion   of  non-essentials.     Every  word,   sentence,   or 
paragraph  that  does  not  help  to  make  the  idea  complete  in 
its  unity,  lessens  the  efficiency  of  the  message.     The  letter 
answering  a  complaint,  for  example,  should  not  have  much 
space  devoted  to  your  excuses,  for  the  reader  is  not  so  much 
interested  in  the  excuses  as  he  is  to  know  what  you  are  going 
to  do  about  reparation  and  satisfaction.     If  the  main  idea 
in  an  advertisement  for  Victor  Victrolas  is  that  of  exclusive 
talent,  it  is  unwise  to  bring  in  the  use  of  the  Victor  for 
dancing,  as  it  is  a  non-essential  thought  to  complete  the  main 


176  THE    COMPOSITION.   AS    A   WHOLE 

idea  of  exclusive  talent.  As  a  result  of  the  inclusion  of  these 
two  ideas  the  reader  would  be  confused,  for  he  would  be 
unable  to  see  the  relation  of  the  two  ideas. 

The  Efficiency  of  Singleness  of  Impression 

448.  A  letter  that  makes  a  complaint  and  orders  goods 
at  the  same  time  is  an  example  of  a  violation  of  the  principle 
of  unity  and  also  of  the  principle  of  efficiency.     In  such  a 
letter  there  is  no  unity  of  purpose.     As  a  result  the  reader 
receives  a  jumbled  impression  of  what  is  wanted.     But  be- 
sides that  fault  there  is  the  trouble  caused  in  handling  such 
a  letter.    It  comes  into  the  business  house,  where  it  is  opened 
by  the  mail  clerk,  who  sees  from  its  first  paragraph  that  it 
is  a  complaint  letter.     He  accordingly  sends  it  to  the  com- 
plaint department.  The  complaint  department  has  other  com- 
plaint letters  on  hand,  and  this  particular  letter  may  have  to 
wait  until  the  last.     When  its  time  comes,  the  complaint 
man  handles  the  letter,  and  then  discovers  that  the  letter 
should  also  go  to  the  order  department.     It  is  then  sent  to 
the  order  department,  where  it  has  to  wait  until  its  turn  for 
attention.     This  may  be  two  or  three  days  after  it  has  been 
received  by  the  concern.     As  a  result  of  this  violation  of 
unity,  the  sender  of  the  letter  has  to  wait  for  his  order,  and 
perhaps  writes  in  to  find  out  why  it  has  not  been  shipped 
immediately.     All  of  this,  of  course,  has  been  a  waste  of 
time  and  energy. 

449.  The  matter  of  filing  such  a  letter  causes  trouble, 
for  the  complaint  department  would  want  to  keep  a  copy 
of  it  as  would  also  the  order  department.     This  fact  might 
mean  that  the  letter  would  have  to  be  copied.    A  good  rule 


THE    PRINCIPLE   OF    COHERENCE  177 

to  follow  in  business  writing,  therefore,  is  that  a  separate 
letter  should  be  written  for  each  important  message.  The  re- 
sult would  be  a  saving  in  time  and  trouble  for  all  concerned. 

450.  In  the  writing  of  long  letters,  reports,  or  adver- 
tisements, it  is  always  helpful  to  block  out  roughly,  either 
on  paper  or  in  your  mind,  the  ideas  that  you  think  might  be 
used.    You  can  then  select  those  that  you  think  are  essential 
and  reject  the  rest.     Then  test  your  selection  by  seeing  if 
all  the  selected  ideas  can  be  gathered  and  expressed  in  one 
sentence  that  sums  up  the  main  idea  that  you  desire  your 
reader  to  receive.    The  summing-up  sentence  or  key-sentence 
may  be  like  the  following: 

"As  I  am  an  expert  on  electrical  repairing  and  installing, 
you  ought  to  call  me  up  if  you  have  any  work  to  be 
done."  (See  Page  70.) 

"If  we  cannot  find  your  goods  in  four  days,  we  shall  ship 
duplicate  order."     (See  Page  69.) 

The  Principle  of  Coherence 

451.  Coherence  is  usually  considered  as  the  principle  of 
arranging  the  ideas  that  have  already  been  selected  so  that 
there  will  be  a  constant  and  logical  progression  throughout 
the  message.     There  are  two  points  to  be  considered  in  the 
matter  of  securing  coherence;   arrangement  or  order,   and 
connection. 

Logical  Arrangement  of  Ideas 

452.  Proper  sequence  is  important  in  presenting  ideas  so 
that  they  will  be  clearly  and  easily  understood.     Each  step 
taken  in  developing  our  proposition  should  be  apparent.     In 


ITS  THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE 

colloquial  use  we  often  hear  the  remark,  "No,  I  don't  fol- 
low you."  This  remark  means  that  the  listener,  from  the 
arrangement  of  the  ideas  of  the  speaker,  fails  to  comprehend 
exactly  the  speaker's  reasoning.  Some  definite  order  or  ar- 
rangement— and  an  order  or  arrangement  that  is  apparent 
to  the  reader — is  therefore  necessary. 

453.  In  most  cases  of  letter  writing,  the  thought  pro- 
gresses from  the  viewpoint  of  the  reader  to  that  of  the  writer. 
Most  people  are  interested  primarily  in  themselves.  If  we 
speak  about  them,  they  will  listen.  The  reader  of  a  sales 
letter  or  advertisement  is  not  interested  to  learn  at  the  be- 
ginning that  the  writer  wants  him  to  do  something.  It  is 
the  purpose  of  the  writer  to  lead  the  reader  to  that  point. 
An  answer  to  a  complaint  furnishes  a  good  example.  The 
first  step  is  to  conciliate  the  complainant  in  order  to  get  him 
to  read  the  rest  of  the  letter  with  an  unbiased  mind.  The 
second  step  is  to  state  the  facts  in  the  case  or  the  explanation 
of  the  causes.  The  third  step  is  to  make  reparation,  or  tell 
why  you  cannot  make  it.  The  fourth  step  is  to  ask  for  a 
continuance  of  the  business.  The  letter  on  Page  69  shows 
how  this  idea  is  carried  out  in  complete  detail. 

The  Use  of  Connection   to  Secure  Smoothness 

454a.  The  mind  likes  to  get  on,  to  make  progress.  It 
likes  to  move  easily,  swiftly,  smoothly  from  sentence  to  sen- 
tence, from  paragraph  to  paragraph  right  through  the  whole 
composition  until  it  has  come  to  the  end.  Hence,  a  visible 
connection  between  paragraphs  is  an  aid  in  showing  the  rela- 
tion between  their  statements.  This  visible  connection  may 
be  shown  in  these  ways : 


USE  OF  CONNECTION  TO  SECURE  SMOOTHNESS    179 

454b.     By  parallel  construction,  i.  e.,  several  paragraphs 
may  begin  with  the  same  sentence  construction. 

If  a  man  should  call  on  you  and  tell  you  that  he  could 
solve  all  of  your  office  problems — that  he  would  guarantee 
to  develop  a  higher  degree  of  efficiency — show  you  a  better 
system  of  handling  detail — 

If  he  told  you  that  he  had  many  years  of  experience  in 
the  management  of  large  office  organizations — that  he  was 
now  an  officer  in  a  large  business  training  institute,  and 
was  also  a  lecturer  on  office  organization  in  one  of  the 
largest  universities— 

****** 

4S4c.     By  having  the  second  or  third  paragraph,  for  ex- 
ample, develop  the  points  made  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

Dear  Sir: 

In  accordance  with  your  request  of  January  25,  I  am 
submitting  a  summary  of  the  estimated  economies  you  will 
make  in  insurance  and  labor  by  taking  space  in  one  of  our 
model  loft  buildings  and  giving  up  your  present  New  York 
warehouses. 

Mr.  Slade  has  carefully  investigated  the  rates  of  insurance 
in  your  present  warehouses  and  has  compared  them  with 
the  existing  rate  of  insurance  in  our  building.  This  saving, 
he  has  estimated,  at  a  rate  of  nc  in  our  building  as  against 
rates  from  42c  to  58c  in  your  present  warehouses.  This 
saving  is  approximately  $6,000. 

In  estimating  the  saving  that  you  can  make  in  labor  cost, 
Mr.  Wolf,  without  allowing  for  added  efficiency  of  labor 
and  possible  economy  in  emergency  help,  has  figured  that 
if  the  entire  business  is  transferred  to  Brooklyn  five  porters 
at  $13  a  week  can  be  saved.  This  amounts  to  a  saving  per 

annum  of  $3,380 

****** 


180  THE   COMPOSITION    AS    A   WHOLE 

454d.     By  having  each  paragraph  depend  directly  upon 
the  preceding  paragraph  and  carry  its  thought  a  step  further. 

Dear  Sir: 

Looking  over  our  records  a  few  days  ago,  I  noticed  that 
you  haven't  been  so  good  a  customer  of  ours  in  the  past 
twelve  months  as  you  used  to  be,  and  the  more  I  looked  at 
that  record  the  more  I  wondered  what  we  had  done  that 
caused  you  practically  to  stop  trading  with  us. 

Finally  I  decided  to  drop  you  a  line  and  ask  you  whether 
you  are  willing  to  tell  me,  personally,  frankly,  just  what  the 
trouble  has  been,  and  whether  there  is  anything  we  haven't 
done  that  we  should  have  done,  and  whether  there  is  any- 
thing we  can  do  NOW  to  get  you  back  on  our  list  of  regular 
customers ;  if  we  can  we  surely  want  to  do  it. 
******* 

455.  Even  between  the  paragraphs  the  use  of  certain 
methods  of  specific  connection   helps   to   secure  coherence. 
Among  the  more  important  methods  are:    the  use  of  con- 
nectives, of  repetition,  of  transitional  sentences,  of  transi- 
tional paragraphs. 

456.  Connectives  are  connecting  words  that  show  the 
relation  of  one  paragraph  to  the  preceding  paragraph,  and 
thus  aid  the  reader  in  getting  the  thought.     This  method  is 
very  useful  in  argumentative  and  explanatory  work,  for  the 
connecting  words  act  as  sign-posts  to  point  out  the  intricate 
way  and  to  show  the  exact  relation  that  exists  between  the 
paragraphs.     These  connecting  words  are  of  various  kinds. 
Sometimes  a  numeral  expression  makes  a  good  transition, 
as  first,  second,  third,  and  so  on.    This,  of  course,  is  a  rather 
formal  method,  but  sometimes  you  want  to  show  the  reader 
that  you  are  trying  to  make  certain  definite  points.     Next, 


USE  OF  CONNECTION  TO  SECURE  SMOOTHNESS    181 

we  have  such  connectives  as  therefore,  hence,  accordingly,  as 
a  result,  and  so  on.  Then  there  are  the  demonstratives,  such 
as  this,  that,  those,  these,  and  the  pronouns  he,  it,  they,  and 
so  on,  which  refer  to  the  preceding  paragraph  and  thereby 
connect  the  two  paragraphs. 

The  judicious  and  profitable  investment  of  money  is  es- 
sentially a  banker's  business;  the  selection  of  investments 
in  which  safety  of  interest  and  principal  is  assured,  requires 
experience  and  special  knowledge. 

It  is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  wisdom  for  the  person 
having  idle  money  to  invest,  to  obtain  investments  through 
a  sound,  well-managed  bank  which  makes  a  business  of 
handling  millions  of  dollars  and  has  facilities  for  se- 
curing complete,  accurate  information  regarding  investments 
offered 

457.  Sometimes  the  best  transition  from  paragraph  to 
paragraph  is  brought  about  by  repetition;  that  is,  the  first 
sentence  of  the  new  paragraph  echoes  or  repeats  a  thought  in 
the  preceding  paragraph. 

May  we  inquire  whether  you  have  given  any  consideration 
to  our  recent  requests  to  consult  you  regarding  the  interior 
decorating  contemplated  for  your  new  residence? 

As  interior  decorating  is  our  specialty,  we  are  prepared  to 
supply  what  is  required  to  make  a  home  attractive 

458.  In  many  cases,  in  order  that  the  reader  may  see 
that  we  are  changing  our  point  of  view,  it  is  wise  to  note 
this  change  of  point  of  view  in  the  opening  sentence  of  the 
new  paragraph.     This  type  of  sentence  is  called  the  transi- 
tional sentence. 

In  a  similar  way  the  banker  in  enlisting  aid  for  his  railway 
sets  the  imaginations  of  his  listeners  at  work  upon  a  con- 


182  THE   COMPOSITION    AS    A   WHOLE 

trast  between  the  monotonous  present  and  the  brilliant  future 
of  their  town.  When  your  listener  is  self-satisfied,  talk  his 
disadvantages,  weaken  his  discontent,  play  upon  his  need. 

Now,  let  us  take  this  from  another  angle.  A  man 
may  feel  a  need  yet  have  both  well-grounded  objections 
against  your  way  of  supplying  it,  and  false  objections  or 
prejudices 

459.  The  topic  sentence  may  be  used.  (A  topic  sen- 
tence is  a  sentence  that  contains  the  idea  of  the  paragraph.) 
The  topic  sentence  is  to  the  paragraph  as  a  title  is  to  a 
story. 

Example:  Advertising,  we  are  told,  is  a  game.  So  it  is. 
Many  people,  however,  play  it  as  if  it  were  a  game  of 
chance,  like  dice;  or  luck  and  bluff,  like  poker.  They 
seem  to  think  that  if  they  make  one  wrong  guess,  they 
have  just  as  good  a  chance  on  the  next  deal.  Far  from 
it.  The  game  of  advertising  is  more  like  chess.  It  de- 
pends on  skill  and  science  and  one  false  move  often  does 
more  damage  than  a  dozen  good  ones  can  repair. 

Note:  In  dictation,  especially,  is  the  topic  sentence  of 
great  assistance.  The  dictator  should  know,  before  he  starts 
to  dictate,  the  distinct  topics  that  he  is  going  to  put  into 
the  letter.  With  these  topics  well  arranged  in  his  mind,  he 
should  begin  by  dictating  a  short  sentence  which  contains 
the  idea.  He  should  then  develop  the  idea  into  a  paragraph. 
He  next  dictates  his  second  topic  put  into  the  form  of  a 
short  sentence  to  begin  his  second  paragraph;  he  develops 
this  topic  as  much  as  he  desires,  and  then  goes  on  with  his 
third  paragraph. 

The  results  of  this  method  are:  the  reader  upon  reading 
the  first  sentence  of  the  paragraph  learns  in  the  very  first 
few  words  of  what  the  writer  is  writing;  the  dictator's  work 
is  made  easier;  and  a  more  logical  presentation  of  the  ideas 
is  secured. 


USE  OF  CONNECTION  TO  SECURE  SMOOTHNESS    183 

460.  Still    another   way   of   securing   better   connection 
throughout    the    composition    is   by    the   use   of   transitional 
paragraphs.     A  transitional  paragraph  is  a  paragraph  that  is 
used  as  a  sort  of  bridge  between  two  important  and  unre- 
lated ideas,   and   that  serves  to  prepare  the  reader  for  the 
new  idea  that  is  coming. 

The  quality  of  this  typewriting  machine  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  standard  typewriting  machine  and  I  need  not 
go  into  further  detail  in  regard  to  its  construction,  its  easy 
running  properties,  and  its  durability. 

Since  I  have  discussed  the  matter  of  the  quality  of  the 
machine,  I  should  also  take  up  the  matter  of  price,  because 
you  want  to  know  not  so  much  about  the  quality  of  the 
machine,  but  whether  or  not  you  are  getting  value  for  your 
money. 

The  price  of  the  machine  is  $60.  This,  as  you  will  note, 
is  $40  less  than  the  price  of  the  standard  machine.  If  you 
will 

461.  Fast,   smooth   reading  is  especially  desirable  in  a 
sales  letter  and  in  advertising  copy  so  that  the  attention  of 
the  reader  may  be  held.     The  demands  of  space  and  of  fast 
reading  in  sales  letters  and  in  advertising  copy  cause  to  be 
used  in  this  case  a  connotative  coherence ;  i.  e.,  a  coherence 
secured  by  the  logical  presentation  of  the  thought  assisted 
but  little  by  the  use  of  expressed  connecting  phrases  or  words. 

Armour  &  Company  are  the  biggest  in  their  line.  They 
deserve  this  position  because  they  know  how  to  do  business. 
I  learned  a  lot  from  them. 

I  was  in  sole  charge  of  their  business  in  my  part  of  the 
country.  I  employed  all  the  men.  My  force  included  40 
managers  and  salesmen. 


184  THE   COMPOSITION    AS    A   WHOLE 

Business  grew  in  my  territory — so  did  my  salary.  All 
conceivable  plans  were  followed  to  boom  business  on  Star 
Hams,  Simon  Pure  Lard,  Armour's  Soaps,  Extract  of  Beef, 
Veribest  Canned  Meats,  Mince  Meat,  etc.  I  issued  weekly 
bulletins,  salesmen's  papers,  ginger  talks,  held  conventions, 
and  met  bodies  of  salesmen  ail  over  the  country.  I  ran 
direct  to  trade  campaigns  to  all  the  retail  dealers — strong 
business-bringing  stuff. 

462.  Another   example   that   shows   how  speed   can  be 
given  to  a  message  by  the  using  of  a  connotative  coherence  is 
given   below.      In   this   case,    although   a   Postal   Telegraph 
blank  was  used,  this  was  no  telegram,  for  it  was  enclosed  in 
an  envelope  and  sent  through  the  mail. 

ALEXANDER  HAMILTON  INSTITUTE 
65  ASTOR  PLACE,  N.  Y. 

FACTS— ELECTRICAL  EXPERIMENTER  ALMOST  3 
YEARS  OLD    THIS  IS  FIRST  ISSUE  WE  ACCEPT 
ADS    REASON  DIDN'T  THINK  IT  WOULD  PAY 
YOU  BEFORE  WE  HAD  20,000  CIRCULATION    GOT 
THAT  MUCH  NOW  ON  ALL  NEWSSTANDS  HIGH 
CLASS  CIRCULATION    ALL  READERS  HAVE 
HOBBY     ALL  SPEND  MONEY     YOU  WANT  SOME 
OF  THEIR  KALE     ADVERTISING  RATES?     SURE 
JUST  DROP  POSTAL    RUSH    GOING  TO  PRESS 
loTH    HAND  SHAKE 

233  FULTON  ST  ELECTRICAL  EXPERIMENTER 

N  Y  8.39  P  M 

463.  So  far  coherence  has  been  discussed  as  a  matter  of 
externals — of  mechanical  arrangement  and  connection — but 
that  discussion  did  not  apparently  cover  the  whole  matter  of 


USE  OF  CONNECTION  TO  SECURE  SMOOTHNESS    185 

coherence.  Can  there  be  an  internal  coherence?  By  in- 
ternal coherence  is  meant  a  constant  forward  movement 
through  the  reading  matter  caused  by  an  aroused  interest  in 
the  mind.  No  matter  how  logically  arranged  are  the  ideas 
in  an  advertisement,  no  matter  how  well  connected  they 
are,  yet  there  may  be  no  forward  movement  through  the 
text.  The  average  mind  may  have  no  active  desire  to  move 
through,  and,  if  the  mind  does  not  move  through,  there  is  no 
coherence.  On  the  other  hand,  even  though  the  ideas  were 
illogically  arranged,  even  though  they  were  not  joined  by 
connectives,  yet  there  might  be  a  forward  movement  of  the 
mind  through  the  text,  if — the — ideas — were — interesting — 
to — the — mind. 

464.  In  sales  letters  and  in  advertising  copy,  paragraphs 
are  like  so  many  ties  in  a  trestle  crossing  a  river.    The  reader 
must  step  over  the  gaps  between  the  ties.     We  ordinarily 
help  him  over  these  gaps  by  means  of  a  transition,  but  this 
ordinary  way  will   not   always   do.      The   reader   of  sales 
letters   and   advertising  copy   will   not   step   over   the   gaps 
unless  he  is  impelled  onward  by  an  interest  already  aroused, 
or  unless  he  is  drawn  on  by  an  interest  in  the  paragraph 
ahead.     This  is  a  matter  of  active  coherence — a  coherence 
which  is  present  because  of  the  interest  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader.     Active  coherence  might  therefore  be  defined  as  the 
quality  which  influences  the  reader  to  read  from  the  first 
sentence,    right    through    the   entire   composition   without   a 
break.     This  is  a  vital  principle,   for  the  success  of  most 
sales  letters  and  advertisements  is  based  on  it. 

465.  In  a  sales  letter  and  in  advertising  copy  it  would, 
therefore,   be   necessary   to   have   the   opening  paragraph   of 


186  THE   COMPOSITION    AS    A   WHOLE 

interest  to  the  reader.  Once  we  have  secured  this  interest, 
we  should  see  that  it  is  held  throughout  the  reading  of  the 
whole  composition.  The  reader  will  continue  to  read  so 
long  as  his  interest  remains  unabated. 

466.  We   can   draw  the   reader  on  by  putting  at   the 
beginning  of  each  new  paragraph  something  of  interest.     At 
the  end  of  one  paragraph  he  glances  across  the  space  to  the 
first  sentence  of  the  next  paragraph.     If  he  sees  that  there 
is  something  interesting  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  para- 
graph, he  will  step  across  to  read. 

Emphasis 

467.  The  third  principle  of  construction  is  the  principle 
of  emphasis — a  principle   primarily   of   arrangement.      The 
usual  purpose   is  to   make  certain   points  stand  out  of  the 
general  mass  and  impress  the  reader.     Another  purpose  of 
emphasis  is  to  use  to  best  advantage  the  important  places 
in  a  letter  or  advertisement. 

468.  The  principle  of  emphasis  is  not  so  commonly  used 
as  the  other  two  principles  of  construction.     For  emphasis 
is  applied  only  when  the  writer  desires  to  lay  stress  on  cer- 
tain ideas  that  are  important.     The  writer  has  little  need 
for  the  principle  of  emphasis  in  the  writing  of  an  ordinary 
routine   letter — say  a  perfunctory  acknowledgment  of   the 
payment  of  a  bill,  or  an  ordinary  order  letter.     Emphasis 
is,  however,  of  great  importance  in  advertisements  and  sales 
letters,    for    these   types   of    Business    English    meet    strong 
competition,  and,  if  they  are  to  serve  their  purpose,  must  be 
strongly  and  emphatically  written — or  as  advertising  writers 
have  it,  they  must  have  punch. 


USE    OF    POSITION    TO    SECURE    EMPHASIS    187 


469.  In  most  business  letters,  pamphlets,  advertisements, 
and  so  on,  certain  facts  and  ideas  are  of  more  importance 
than  others.     In  order  that  these  facts  and  ideas  may  not  be 
overlooked  by  the  reader,  in  order  that  they  may  be  forced 
into  the  reader's  attention,  and  in  order  that  the  main  point 
may  be  more  forcibly  impressed,  various  methods  are  used. 
The  most  common  of  the  methods  used  to  secure  the  desired 
emphasis  are  by  position  and  proportion. 

The  Use  of  Position  to  Secure  Emphasis 

470.  The  first  of  the  two  methods  of  securing  emphasis 
is  by  position;  that  is,  by  placing  the  important  ideas  in  the 
important  places,   or  by  the  careful  utilization  of  the  im- 
portant positions  of  a  letter  or  advertisement.     It  is  a  well- 
known   fact  that  the  impressiveness  of  a  written  story  or 
an  oral   presentation   depends   for  a  large  measure  on   the 
introduction    and    conclusion — the    beginning    and    ending. 
Just  as  true,  but  not  so  widely  known,  is  the  fact  that  the 
impressiveness  of  a  letter  or  advertisement  depends  on  the 
beginning  and  ending. 

471.  The  two  most  important  places  in  a  letter  deserve 
the  most  important  ideas.     The  beginning  is  an  important 
place  because  it  makes  the  first  impression  on  the  reader, 
and  the  first  impression  determines  the  attitude  or  frame  of 
mind  of  the  reader.     The  ending  is  important  because  it  is 
read  last,  and  hence,  other  things  being  equal,  will  remain 
longest  in  the  mind  of  the  reader. 

472.  That  the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  letter  should 
be  regarded  as  of  greatest  value  and  should  contain  ideas  of 
importance  or  interest  seems  obvious.     Yet  the  great  bulk 


188  THE   COMPOSITION    AS    A   WHOLE 

of  letters  begin  with  some  such  expression  as  " Yours  of  the 
1 5th  instant  received  and  contents  noted."  Of  course,  the 
letter  has  been  received  and  noted  or  the  reply  would  not 
have  been  written.  These  same  letters  are  likely  to  end 
with  the  weak,  sliding  off,  participial  ending  "Hoping  and 
trusting  to  receive  an  early  and  favorably  reply,  we  beg  to 
remain."  To  take  up  the  most  important  places  of  a  letter 
with  these  common  and  useless  expressions  is  a  waste  of 
opportunity  and  of  valuable  space. 

How  to  Begin  the  Letter 

473.  The  beginning  of  a  letter  should  accomplish  an 
important  part  of  the  purpose  of  the  letter.  Just  what  it 
should  accomplish  depends  on  the  kind  of  letter  that  is  being 
written. 

474.  The  best  method  of  presenting  ideas  in  business 
letters  is  to  start  with  the  reader's  point  of  view.    The  idea 
that  is  of  importance  to  the  reader,  that  fits  in  well  with  his 
viewpoint,  should  therefore  be  put  at  the  beginning.     The 
idea  that  is  of  importance  to  the  writer  should  be  kept  until 
the  end. 

475.  Take  for  an  example  the  answering  of  a  complaint. 
The  first  and  natural  thought  of  the  writer  is  to  give  his 
excuses,  but  those  are  not  of  prime  interest  to  the  reader. 
The   writer   should   take   the   complainant's   viewpoint   and 
try  to  get  him  in  a  suitable  state  of  mind  to  listen  to  the 
writer's  side  of  the  complaint.  This  is  done  by  starting  off 
with  a  conciliatory  paragraph  which  tells  the  reader  that 
his  complaint  will  be  satisfactorily  adjusted.     That  is  what 


HOW   TO    BEGIN    A    LETTER  189 

he  wants  to  know.  An  example  of  a  good  beginning  is  as 
follows : 

Dear  Madam: 

Thank  you  for  your  candid  letter  of  Jan.  19  in  which  you 
call  our  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  shirtwaist  you  pur- 
chased on  Jan.  14  does  not  come  up  to  the  usual  high 
standard  of  goods  handled  by  our  store.  You  can  rest 
assured  that  everything  will  be  satisfactorily  arranged 

Such  a  beginning  is  good  because  it  takes  the  reader's  view- 
point, tells  an  important  idea  right  at  the  start,  and  helps 
accomplish  the  purpose  of  the  letter  by  getting  the  reader 
into  the  right  attitude  of  mind. 

476.  A  general  rule  to  follow  in  most  cases  (sales  letters 
are  a  notable  exception)    is  to  show  the  purpose   of  your 
letter  at   the  beginning.     If  this  is   done,   the  reader  will 
know  from  the  start  what  the  letter  is  about. 

477.  It  is  always  best  to  acknowledge  in  the  first  sen- 
tence the  receipt  of  the  letter  to  which  you  are  replying,  for 
such  identification  helps  the  reader  to  understand  at  once 
what  you  are  writing  about. 

478.  The  preceding  statement  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  the  first  sentence  should  be  taken  up  wholly  with  the 
remark  "Yours  of  the  29th  ult.  just  to  hand  and  contents 
noted."       Such    preliminary    remarks    absorb    part    of    the 
reader's  attention,  kill  interest,  and  accomplish  nothing.     A 
good  way  is  to  begin  the  letter  with  an  idea  that  is  of  im- 
portance to  the  reader,   into  which  the  acknowledgment  is 
woven  in  an   unobtrusive  way.     The  following  beginnings 
are  characteristic  of  good  letters: 


390  THE   COMPOSITION    AS    A   WHOLE 

We  are  unable  to  give  you  the  information  you  ask  for  in 
your  letter  of  May  15  concerning  the  financial  standing  of 
John  F.  Andrews,  who '. 

The  catalogue  you  sent  for  on  August  27  has  been  mailed 

Your  order  of  October  10,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  has  been 

delayed  in  shipment,  but 

Thank  you  for  your  letter  of  April  14  in  which  you  call 
our  attention  to  the  mistake  made  on  our  last  invoice,  our 
number  54643 

479.  There  are  several  other  ways  of  acknowledging  a 
letter.     One  of  these  is  by  placing  the  acknowledgment  in 
the   center   of   the   letter   above   the   inside   address.      This 
acknowledgment  will  read: 

"Replying  to  your  letter  of  October  14." 
"In  reply  to  your  letter  of  October  14." 
"In  re  your  letter  of  October  14." 
"Answering  Mr.  Brown's  letter  of  October  14." 

Still  another  way  is  by  placing  the  kind  of  acknowledgment 
shown  above  in  the  center  of  the  letter  just  below  the  salu- 
tation. These  various  ways  are  neither  so  commonly  used 
nor  so  good  as  weaving  the  acknowledgment  into  some  im- 
portant idea  and  placing  it  in  the  first  sentence.  After  a 
little  practice  the  letter  writer  will  grow  accustomed  to 
opening  his  letter  with  a  sentence  that  expresses  an  im- 
portant idea,  uses  a  tone  that  helps  to  achieve  the  purpose  of 
the  letter,  and  at  the  same  time  contains  the  acknowledg- 
ment in  a  manner  that,  because  it  is  unhackneyed,  impresses 
the  reader  favorably. 

480.  The  beginning  of  a  sales  letter  or   advertisement 


HOW   TO    END    THE    LETTER  191 


must  be  such  as  to  grip  the  reader's  attention.  The  words 
and  ideas  presented  in  the  first  line  are  important,  for  they 
determine  in  many  cases  whether  or  not  the  letter  will  be 
read. 

How  to  End  the  Letter 

481.  A  very  important  place  or  position  is  the  ending. 
But  like  the  beginning  of  the  letter,  the  ending  is  often  given 
over  to  the  expression  of  an  unimportant  idea  or  to  the  weak 
expression  of  an  important  idea. 

482.  In  many  cases  the  writer  throws  away  an  oppor- 
tunity to  end  his  letter  with  a  sentence  that  will  drive  home 
the  idea  the  reader  should  get  by  filling  the  valuable  space 
at  the  end  with  a  hackneyed,  sliding-off,  participial  ending, 
such  as  "Hoping  that  you  will  find  this  arrangement  satis- 
factory and  trusting  that  we  may  hear  from  you  soon,  we 
beg  to  remain." 

483.  Many  writers,  after  they  have  finished  what  they 
have  had  to  say,  tack  on  a  participial  ending,  which  leads 
into  "We  beg  to  remain."     They  do  this  because  they  are 
afraid   that   otherwise    the   close   of   the   letter   might   seem 
abrupt.     An  abrupt  ending  is  often  undesirable,  but  it  can 
easily  be  avoided  without  the  use  of  the  weak,  participial 
ending. 

484.  If  the  idea  is  important  it  should  be  expressed  in 
a  strong  way  in  the  form  of  a  definite  statement  and  not  in 
the  form  of  a  participial  construction — one  of  the  weakest 
forms    of   construction    of    the    English    language.      If    the 
idea  is  unimportant,  it  should  be  left  out,  or,  at  least  should 
not  occupy  one  of  the  most  important  places  in  the  letter. 


192  THE   COMPOSITION    AS    A   WHOLE 

It  is  better,  therefore,  to  make  a  definite  statement,  and 
write  "We  sincerely  hope  that  you  will  find  this  arrange- 
ment satisfactory;"  then  put  in  a  complimentary  close,  as 
"Yours  very  truly."  That  ending  is  not  abrupt. 

The  Use  of  Proportion  to  Secure  Emphasis 

485.  The  securing  of  emphasis  by  the  use  of  proportion 
means  that  the  important   ideas  should   be  given   as  much 
space  as  is  needed  to  treat  them  with  sufficient  detail.     This 
result  cannot  be  accomplished  if  too  much  room  is  taken  up 
with  details  of  the  unimportant  ideas.     The  writer  should 
first  find  out  the  amount  of  space  he  has  at  his  disposal ; 
next,  he  should  judge  the  relative  importance  of  the  ideas 
he  intends  to  put  into  this  space;  and  then  he  should  give 
to  the  important  ideas  as  much  space  as  they  require  before 
he  puts  in  the  unimportant  ideas.     Proportion  is  a  matter 
of  judgment. 

The  Use  of  Climax  to  Secure  Emphasis 

486.  The  climax  can  be  used  to  secure  emphasis.     The 
climax  is  a  series  of  thoughts  or  statements  which  gradually 
increase  in  importance.     It  is  secured  by  arranging  ideas  in 
the  order  of  their  importance  with  the  most  important  last. 
In  true  climax,  a  weaker  or  less  important  thought  never  fol- 
lows a  stronger  one.     Although  commonly  used  in  sentences 
and  paragraphs,  it  is  seldom  used  in  a  whole  composition 
unless  the  whole  composition  happens  to  be  an  advertisement 
or  letter  that  consists  of  a  paragraph  or  a  sentence.     Of  this 
an  example  follows: 


USE  OF  PAUSE  TO  SECURE  EMPHASIS          193 

By  thinking  of  Gold  Medal  Flour — 
And  reading  of  Gold  Medal  Flour — 
And  hearing  of  Gold  Medal  Flour — 
You  will  EVENTUALLY 
come  to  having  Gold  Medal  Flour — 
With  much  satisfaction  and 
economy  to  yourself. 
WHY  NOT  NOW? 

For  its  absolute  correctness  of  construction,  for  the  per- 
fect control  and  noiselessness  of  its  power,  for  its  inspiring 
dignity  of  appearance,  and  for  studied  attention  to  every 
smallest  detail  that  provides  complete  comfort  and  relaxa- 
tion, the  White  Berline  stands  unequalled. 

487.  It  is  a  part  of  human  nature  to  put  one's  best  argu- 
ment first  so  that  a  deep  impression  may  be  made  on  the 
reader.     This  instinct   invariably  leads  the  writer  into   an 
anti-climax,  for  if  he  places  his  strongest  argument  first,  his 
other  arguments  which  follow  must  of  necessity  be  weaker. 
So  it  is  that  the  writer  must  exercise  not  only  judgment  in 
selecting  his  most  important  ideas  but  also  self-restraint  in 
the  matter  of  placing  them. 

488.  If  an  advertisement  or  letter  contains  several  argu- 
ments, the  strongest  argument  should  not  come  first,  for  the 
reader  in  reading  through  the  composition  will  feel  that  it 
is  getting  weaker  and  weaker. 

The  Use  of  Pause  to  Secure  Emphasis 

489.  Speakers  commonly  use  the   pause  to  secure  em- 
phasis; that  is,  just  before  they  are  to  present  an  important 
point,  they  pause.     This  pause  serves  several  purposes.     It 


l&i  THE   COMPOSITION    AS    A   WHOLE 

allows  the  listener  time  to  assimilate  that  which  he  has  just 
heard  and  to  catch  up  with  the  speaker.  The  whole  amount 
of  the  attention  of  the  listener  is  then  ready  to  be  given  to 
the  idea  that  is  to  be  presented  next.  The  pause,  moreover, 
announces  that  an  idea  of  importance  is  to  follow. 

490.  The  pause  may  be  used  to  good  effect  in  advertise- 
ments and  in  sales  letters  to  secure  a  stress  or  an  emphasis. 
A  dash  placed  before  the  word  to  be  stressed  will  give  the 
desired  effect. 

"We  have  been  lacking  something  that  we  needed  most — 

efficiency." 

"For  the  best  cleanser,  for  an  aid  to  a  clear  complexion, 
for  something  that  is  more  than  mere  soap,  there  is  only 
one  thing— PALM  OLIVE." 

491.  The  pause  can  be  secured  in  another  way  by  the 
paragraphing  of  a  single  word  or  phrase,  for  the  white  space 
serves  the  same  purpose  here  as  the  element  of  time  does  to 
the  speaker.     The  mind  of  the  reader  catches  up  with  the 
eye,  for  it  has  been  given  time  to  assimilate  that  which  has 
just  been  read.     It  is  then  not  only  ready  to  attack  the  next 
idea,  but  is  also  informed  that  an  idea  of  importance  is  to 
follow. 

Emphasis  Secured  by  Mechanical  Means 

492a.  Emphasis  on  a  certain  word,  phrase,  and  even  a 
clause  can  be  secured  by  certain  mechanical  devices.  Some 
of  these  can  be  used  in  the  typewritten  letter;  all  of  them 
can  be  used  in  printed  matter. 


EMPHASIS    SECURED    BY    MECHANICAL    MEANS     195 

492b.     Emphasis  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  capitals 
or  bold  face  type. 

Example:     We  will  let  YOU  be  4he  judge. 
492c.     Emphasis  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  italics. 

Example :     But  you  must  send  in  your  order  before  to-night. 
492 d.     Emphasis  can  be  secured  by  spacing  a  word. 

Example :     Sapolio  uses  'up  s-1-o-w-l-y. 

492e.     Emphasis  can  be  secured  by  underlining. 
Example  Take  advantage  of  this  offer  now  ! 

492f.     Emphasis  can  be  secured  in  the  entire  clause  by 
spacing  the  words. 

Example :     This  agency  is  yours  if — you — will — act — now ! 

492g.     Emphasis  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  a  dash 
before  the  word  to  be  stressed. 

Example:     The  one  thing  that  you  need  most  in  your  office 

is — efficiency. 

,  492h.  Emphasis  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  color  on 
a  typewriter  that  uses  a  two-color  ribbon ;  an  important  word 
can  be  typed  in  red. 

4921.     Emphasis  can  be  secured  by  a  combination  of  the 
various  points  given  above. 

Note:  A  word  of  caution  should  be  given  in  legard  to 
the  use  of  mechanical  emphasis.  The  end  of  emphasis  is 
defeated  if  these  devices  are  used  too  often:  they  attract 
special  attention  and  secure  emphasis  only  because  they  are 
seldom  used.  [If  a  letter  is  written  entirely  in  capitals  with 
the  exception  of  one  or  two  words  which  are  in  lower  case 
type,  these  words  would  stand  out  and  become  emphatic 
because  they  are  different  in  make-up  from  the  other  words. 


196  THE    COMPOSITION    AS    A    WHOLE 

If  the  letter  or  advertisement  shouts  all  the  time,  the  im- 
portant word  or  words  will  be  unable  to  make  themselves 
heard  above  the  unimportant.  Hence  emphasis  should  be 
carefully  and  sparingly  used.] 


HOW  TO  DICTATE  ANSWERS  TO  LETTERS 

493.     The  following  hints  are  of  aid  in  learning  how  to 
dictate  answers  to  letters: 

1.  Read   the   letter   very   carefully   and   understand   what 
the  ^ writer  says  or  tries  to  say. 

2.  As  you  read  the  letter  pick  out  the  subjects  or  ques- 
tions which  are  to  be  answered,  and  to  these  add  questions 
or  doubts  which  should  be  settled  to   make  the  answer  to 
the  letter  complete.     These  questions  may  be  numbered  as 
you  go  along. 

3.  Gather  the   facts  with  which  you  are  to  answer  the 
letter.     Arrange  them  in  the  most  logical  order. 

4.  If  there  is  a  problem  of  business  policy  involved,  de- 
termine on  your  attitude  before  you  start  to  dictate. 

5.  Decide  what  action,  if  any,  you  wish  to  have  the  reader 
take,  and  make  your  message  work  toward  that  end. 

6.  Consider  carefully  the  kind  of  man  the  reader  is  and 
adapt  yourself  to  him  in  language,  mood,  and  character.     If 
you  find  that  you  are  unable  to  put  yourself  in  the  right 
mood  and  attitude,  it  is  better  to  postpone  the  dictation.     It 
is  most  important  that  the  tone  of  your  letter  be  suitable. 

7.  Dictate  slowly  and  speak  distinctly.     By  doing  so  you 
will  be  able  to  think  accurately  as  you  dictate  and  you  will 
also  be  helping  the  transcriber. 

8.  Concentrate  your  thoughts  upon  the  ideas  that  you  are 
trying  to  express  and  impress  through  the  letter  upon  the 
reader.     Continually  keep  the  reader  in  mind  and  talk  as 
though  he  sat  facing  you. 


INDEX 

(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


A,  an 

correct  use  of,  90 

omission  of,  50 
Abbreviation,      not      used      in 

complimentary  close,  166 
Accept,  use  of,  90 
Acknowledgment,   methods   of, 

190 

Action,  secured  by  paragraph- 
ing, 62,  64 
Adaptation 

essential  of  business  style,  7 

in  character,  5 

in  language,  5 

in  mood,  5 

to  the  reader,  4 
Address 

in  letters,  157-159 

on  envelope,  170 

titles  in,  157-159 
Adjectives 

correct  use  of,  31 

position  of,  44 

Adjustment       (see      "Adapta- 
tion"), 6 
Adverbs 

correct  use  of,  31 

position  of,  45 


Advertisements 

coherence  in,  72,  73 

paragraphing,  63 

tone  in,  120 

Advise,  used  to  excess,  90 
Affect,  meaning  of,  90 
After  this,  after  that,  frequent 
use   at   beginning    of    sen- 
tence, 124 

Aggravate,  for  annoy,  vex,  91 
All,  after  than,  38 
All  ready,  for  already,  91 
Almost,  for  most,  91 
Alternative,  for  choice,  91 
Am,  (are),  incorrect  use,  18,  20 
Ambiguity 

defined,  8 

in  elliptical   clause,   23 

in  pronouns,  25 

Among,     different     from     be- 
tween, 91 

Amount,  for  number,  91 
And 

illogical,  51 

too  frequent  use,  42 
Antecedent,  of  pronouns,  24,  25 
Any,  after  than,  38 
Any  one,  with  singular  verb,  22 
Any  place,  for  anywhere,  92 


197 


198 


INDEX 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Apostrophe,  rules  for,  147 
Appositive,  case  of,  27 
Appreciate,  correct  use  of,  92 
Apt,  confused  with  liable  and 

likely,  92 
Are,  (am),  incorrectly  used,  18, 

20 

Arrangement  of  sentence,  47 
Articles,  omission  of,  50 
As 

confused  with  that,  92 

distinct  from  so,  92 

instead  of  like,  92 
As  well  as,  introductory  phrase, 

20 

At,  omit  before  about,  92 
Awful,  careless  use  of,  93 

B 

Badly,  for  very  much,  95 
Balance  display  of  letters,  163 
Balance,  distinct  from  rest  and 

remainder,  93 
Balanced  sentences,  40,  41 
Bank  on,  avoid  use  of,  93 
Beginning  of  letter,  188-190 
Besides,   distinct   from   beside, 

93 

Best,  misuse  of,  93 
Between,  used   for  among,  91 
Borrow,  used  for  lend,  94 
Bound,  for  determine,  94 
Brackets,  rule  for,  146 
Bring,    for    carry,    fetch,    and 

take,  94 


Business  English 

defined,  I 

differs    from    literary    Eng- 
lish, 2 

processes  of,  I 

qualities  of,  7-16 

style,   17 

Business     reports     (See    "Re- 
ports") 
But 

contrasting,  75 

illogical,  51 

in  sense  of  only,  37 

repeated,  52 

with  negative,  37 

too  frequent,  42 
But  that,  instead  of  but  what,  94 

C 

Can,  misused  for  may,  94 
Cannot  but,  for  can  but,  94 
Can't  seem,  vulgar,  95 
Capacity,  for  ability,  95 
Capitalization,    rules    for,    148, 

149 
Case 

genitive,  28-30 

how  determined,  26 

possessive,  28-30 
Certificate   of  accountant's  re- 

port,  135 
Character,  7 

defined,  16 

essential,  in  business  letters, 
16 

secured  by,  16 


INDEX 


199 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Chronological  order,  76 
Clause 

at  end  of  sentence,  58 

conditional,  36 

dependent,  32-34 

elliptical,  23 

introduced  by  when  or  where, 

37 

modifying,  49 
-  place  of,  147 

principal,  53 

series  of,  53 

unrelated,  44 

(See  also  "Related  clauses," 

etc.) 
Clearness 

denned,  8 

in  reference,  24 

in  report,  134 

in  use  of  pronouns,  24 

test  of,  10 

violated  by,  8 
Climactic   order   in   paragraph, 

79 
Climax 

in  advertising  and  sales  let- 
ters, 56 

to  secure  emphasis,  192 
Coherence 

between   paragraphs,    178-181 

defined,   177 

in   composition   as    a    whole, 

i83 

in  paragraph,  74 
in  sentence,  44,  47 


Collection  letters,  13 
Collective  nouns,  21 
Colloquialisms,  3 
Colon,  rules  for,  143 
Comma,  rules  for,  147 
Comma  "Fault,"  44 
Comments,  in  accountant's  re- 
port, 135 
Comparative  degree,  with  two 

objects,  21,  38,  51 
Comparison 

expression  of,  49 

incomplete,  51 
Complaint,  letter  as  answer,  13, 

68,  69 

Complement,  case  of,  27 
Complimentary  close 

capitalization   of,   166 

forms   used   in   business   let- 
ters, 165 

forms  used  in  official  letters, 
165 

position,  163 

Composition,  processes  of,  i,  2 
Compound  sentence,  42 
Conciseness 

defined,  12,  13 

faults  of,  13 

how  obtained,  13 
Conclusion,  in  a  report,  132 
Conditional  clauses,  36 
Conjunctions 

coordinate    and    subordinate, 
50,  51 

than  and  as,  28 


200 


INDEX 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Connectives    ( See  separate 
words),  proper  use  of,  74 
Continual,  for  continuous,  95 
Contractions,  3 

Conversation,  how  para- 
graphed, 70 
Coordinate  clauses,  52 
Correctness 

defined,  13,  14 

determined  by,  14,  15 

of  execution,  defined,  16 

value  of,  14 

value  to  business  man,  15 
Correlative,  45 

Correspondence  (See  "Letter") 
Correspondents,     manual     for, 

H5,  n6 

Couldn't  seem,  vulgar,  95 
Council,  for  counsel,  95 
Courtesy,  7 

defined,  10 

illustrated,  n 

violations  of,  12 
Curtness 

defined,  n 

illustrated,  n 

when  to  avoid,  12 
Custom,  for  habit,  95 

D 

Dash,  rules  for,  144 
Date,  of  letters,  correct  form, 

155 
Deal,  vulgar  use  of,  95 


Deductive  order  in  paragraph, 

78 

Definite,  for  definitive,  96 
Degree,  comparative,  use  of,  21 
Demean,  correct  use  of,  96 
Demonstratives,  as  connectives, 

75 

Dependent  clause,  tense  in,  32 
Descriptive  order,  76 
Desire,  how  expressed,  35 
Determination,  how  expressed, 

34,  35 

Dictation,  method  of,  196 
Diction,  82-87 

elements  of,  82 

in  Business  English,  3 

in  business,  82 

principles  of,  82 

superfluous  words,  86,  87 

test  of  good,  82,  83 
Differ  from,  for  differ  with,  96 
Different    than,    for    different 

from,  96 

Disagree,  with  and  from,  96 
Display  and  balance  of  letters, 

162,  165 

Distinctiveness,  in  style,  16 
Don't,  used  in  singular,  96 
Due  to,  correct  use  of,  96 


Each,  every,  with  singular 
verb,  22 

Each  other,  used  for  one  an- 
other, 97 


INDEX 


201 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Economy,  in  style,  17 
Effect 

confused  with  affect,  90  (See 
"Affect,"  97) 

meaning  of,  90 
Efficiency     brought    about    by 

unity,  176 
Either,  neither 

use  of,  97 

with  singular  verb,  20 
Elliptical  clause,  23 
Else 

use  of,  38 

with  somebody,  97 
Emphasis 

climax,  56,  57 

denned,  186 

how  obtained,  81 

how  secured,  55 

in  paragraph,  81 

in  sentence,  54-58 

participle,  58 

preposition,  58 

principle  of,  54 

secured  by  climactic  order,  79 

secured  by  climax,  192 

secured  by  mechanical  means, 
194,   195 

secured  by  pause,  193,  194 

secured  by  position,  187 

secured  by  proportion,  192 

unusual  order,  56 

use  of  there  is,  etc.,  57 

weak    beginning    or    ending, 
188 


Enclosures,  indicated  by,  168 
Ending  of  a  letter,  191,  192 
Enormity,  for  enormousness,  97 
Envelope,  169 

address,  169 

correct  size,  169 

neatness  of,  170 

personal  attention,  170 
Errors,  in  pronouns,  27 
Euphony,  58,  59 

difficult  words,   58 

pleasing  words,  58 

repetition,  59 

similar  sounds,  59 
Every  one,  with  singular  verb, 

22 

Excellent,  a  superlative,  98 
Except 

confused  with  accept,  90 

use  of,  90 
Exceptional,  for  exceptionable, 

98 

Exclamation   mark,    rules    for, 

145 
Expect,  for  suppose  or  suspect, 

98 

Expression  versus  impression,  2 


Farmers,  letters  to,  120 
Farther    and    further,     distin- 
guished, 99 

Faulty  expressions,  list  of,  90 
Few,  for  lessf  99 
Figures  of  speech,  88,  89 


202 


INDEX 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Find,  for  locate,  99 

Fine,  careless  use  of,  99 

For,  repeated,  52 

Form  paragraphs,  71,  72 

Former,  use  of,  25 

Former,  and  /after,  99 

Forms  of  business  communi- 
cation, 2 

Fundamentals  in  Business  Eng- 
lish, 7 


Genitive  case,  when  used,  28 
Gerund,  introducing  sentence,  23 
Got,  misused,  99 
Gotten,  obsolete,  99  . 
Grammar 

constructions  to  be  avoided, 
19 

of  Business  English,  18 

usage  better  than  rules,  18,  19 
Grammatical  agreement,  19 

(See  "Agreement") 
Guess,  for  think,  etc.,  100 

H 

Hackneyed  expressions,  84,  85 
Had,  with  ought,  100 
Hanged,  for  hung,  100 
Hardly,  in  sense  of  only,  37 
Have  got  (See  "Got")  99 
Headings,  of  letters,  153,  154 
Healthy,  for  healthful  or  whole- 
some, 100 
Hence,  as  connective,  74,  78 


Herd's  principle,  56 
However,  too  frequent,  124 
Hyphens,  rules  for,  148 

I 

Idioms 

origin,  18 

//,  introducing  clauses,  36 
Imperfect  tense   (of  shall  and 

will),  36 

Implies,  for  infers,  100 
Impression 

effect  of,  14 

how  created,  2 

versus  expression,  2 
In  and  into,  distinguished,  101 
In    addition    to,    introductory 

phrase,  20 

Indention  of  paragraphs,  165 
Indirect  discourse 

pronouns  in,  251 

should  and  would  in,  36 
Inductive  order  of  paragraphs, 

78 

Infinitive 

perfect,  33 

split,  45 

subject  of,  27 

with  predicate  substantive,  27 
Inside  of,  to  express  time,  101 
Intensive  pronouns,  84 
Internal  coherence 

defined,  185 

importance  of,  185,  186 
Is,  usage  of,  IQ 


INDEX 


208 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


It,  indefinite,  84 

Its,  and  it's,  use  of,  101 

K 

Kind,  and  sort,  101 
Kind  of,  and  sort  of,  101 


Language,    in    Business    Eng- 
lish, i,  5 

Latter,  use  of,  25 
Lay  and  lie,  101 
Led  and  lead,  102 
Letter 

body  of,  162,  165 

complimentary  close,  165 

date,  155 

enclosures,  168 

envelope,  169 

formal  official,   171 

functions  of,  6*8 

headings,  153,  *54 

informal  official,  172 

inside  address,  157,  159 

mechanical  make-up,  150-170 

method  of  folding,  168 

outward  appearance  of,  151 

paper,  151 

personal  attention,  169 

point  of  view,  43 

postscript,  167 

prevision   in   writing,   66,   67 

salutation,  161,  162 

sentence  structure  in,  39 


signature,  166,  167 

standardized  form,  150 

tone  of,  115,  n6,  120,  121 
Letterheads 

abbreviations,  154 

examples  of,  153 

printed,  152 

written,  154,  155 
Liable,  (See  "Apt"),  92 
Like  " 

use  of,  92 

used  for  as,  92 
Likely,  (See  "Apt"),  92 
Line,  uses  of,  103 
Loose  sentence,  40 
Lose,  for  loose,  103 
Lot,  defined,  103 

M 
Mechanical  make-up 

comprised  of,  14 

discussed  in  detail,  150-172 
Mechanical    means    to    secure 

emphasis,  194,  195 
Might  of,  (See  "Of"),  104 
Miscellaneous     faulty     expres- 
sions, 90-114 
Miss,  as  title,  104 
Modifiers 

clause,  49 

participial,  22 

position,  44,  45 

phrase,  49 

sentence  as,  74 
Monotony,  122 


204 


INDEX 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Most,  (See  "Almost"),  91 
Must,  tense  of,  33,  (See  "Of"), 
104 

N 

Nearly,  for  near,  104 
Need,  tense  of,  33 
Negative 

double,  37 

with  hardly,  scarcely,  etc.,  37, 

38 

Nevertheless 

as  connective,  75 

in  contrast,  75 
Nominative  case  with  predicate 

substantive,  27 

Nor,  with  singular  subject,  20 
Number,  in  place  of  amount,  91 

O 

Object  of  verb  or  preposition, 

27 
Objective  case 

subject  of  infinitive,  27 

with  predicate  substantive,  27 
Obscurity 

defined,  9 

how  avoided,  9 

how  caused,  9 

illustrated,  g 

in  use  of  tense,  32 
Of,  with  could,  might,  etc.,  104 
O^  o/,  misused,  104 
Official  letters 

defined,  171 


formal  type,  171,  172 

informal  type,  172 

stationery  for,  171 
Omissions 

of  articles,  50 

of  completeness,  49 

of  conjunctions,  50 

of  part  of  comparison,  51 

of  prepositions,  50 

of  the  subject,  50 

of  verbs,  47 
One,  not  a  one,  104 
Ones,  with  article,  104 
Only,  rule  for,  104 
Or 

illogical,  51 

,with  singular  subject,  20 
Order  of  paragraphs,  76-79 

chronological,  76 

climactic,  79 

deductive,  77 

descriptive,  76 

inductive,  78 

narrative,  76 
Other,  use  of,  38 
Ought,    tense    of,    33     (See 

"Had") 

Outline  of  reports    (See  "Re- 
port") 

common  faults,  125 

essentials,  125 

example,  126,  127 

five  steps,  126 

proposition,  125 


INDEX 


205 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Paper,  quality  for  letters,  151 
Paragraphs 

amplifying,  79 

argumentative,  77 

climactic  order,  79 

coherence  between,  178-183 

coherence  in,  72-80 

deductive  order,  78 

emphasis  in,  81 

expository,  77 

form,  71 

indention  of,  165 

inductive  order,  78 

length,  62 

order  in,  76-78 

purpose,  61 

space  between,  165 

topic  sentence,  80 

transitional,  80 

unity,  66-71 
Parallelism,  54,  179 
Parentheses,  rule  for,  145 
Parenthetical  expression,  47 

phrase,  20 

Participial  ending,  14 
Participle 

as  modifier,  22 

in  absolute  construction,  22 
Party,  defined,  105 
Pause,  to  secure  emphasis,  193, 

194 

Per  cent.,  and  percentage,  105 
Perfect  tense,  32,  33 


j  Period,  rules  for,  147 
Periodic  sentence,  40 
Personal  pronoun,  too  frequent 

use,  124 

Phrases,  series  of,  53 
Plenty,  'as  adverb,  105 
Possessives,  28 

adjective,  30 

double,  29 

equivalent  of,  29 

how  formed,  28,  29 

of  nouns  in  apposition,  29 

use  of,  30 

Position,  emphatic,  55,  80 
Posted,  for  informed,  106 
Postscript,  in  business  letters, 

167 

Practical,  for  practicable,  106 
Predicate  noun,  case  of,  27,  46 
Predicate  substantive 

with  infinitive,  27 

with  nominative  case,  27 
Prefer,  with  to,  above,  etc.,  106 
Prepositions 

at  end  of  sentence,  58 

correct  use  of,  88 

object  of,  27 

omission  of,  5°>  51 
Present  time,  33 
Presentation     of     accountant's 

report,  135 

Pretentious  expressions,  85 
Principal,  and  principle,  106 
Principal  verb,  tense  of,  32 


206 


INDEX 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Profit,  aim  of  Business  English, 

I 
Pronouns 

antecedent  of,  24 

clearness  in,  24 

errors  in,  26 

in  indirect  discourse,  25 

intensive,  84 

relative,  26 
Proportion  to  secure  emphasis, 

192 

Proposition,  for  task,  etc.,  107 
Proven,  for  proved,  107 
Provided,  and  providing,  107 
Psychology 

of  Business  English,  2 

of    letter  writing,  2 
Punctuation,  rules  of,  146,  148 

Q 

Quantity,  for  number,  107 
Question  mark,  rule  for,  141 
Quite  a  few,  misuse  of,  107 
Quite  a  little,  misuse  of,  107 
Quotation  marks,  rule  for,  146, 
147 

R 

Rarely   ever,   for   hardly   ever, 

107 

Real,  for  very,  108 
Reason   is,   the,   incorrect,    108 
Recommendations,     in     report, 

130,  131 
Redundancy,  87 


Relative  clauses,  46 

connectives  of,  51 
Relative  pronouns,  26 
Repetition,  in  paragraph,  181 
Reports 

arrangement,  129 

business,   125-135 

certificate,  135 

clearness,  134 

comments,  135 

conclusion,   132 

consists  of,  135 

defined,  128 

essentials  of,  125 

kinds,  129 

mechanical  arrangement,  164 

outline   of  sales   report,   126, 
127 

presentation,  135 

purpose,  128 

the  five  steps,  126 

two  parties  to,  128 
Revision  after  dictation,  59,  60 
Right  away,  right  off,  not  good 
usage,  108 


Sales  letters 

coherence  in,  72,  73 

functions  of,  69,  70 

paragraphing,  63 

sentences  in,  39 

to  ladies,  117,  119 

tone  of,  117,  119 
Sales  report,  outline,    126,   127 


INDEX 
(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


207 


Salutation 

abbreviation  in,  162 
correct  form,  161,  162 
how  written,  161 
in     formal     official     letters, 

.  I7.2 

in    informal    official    letters, 

172 

in  letters,  161,  162 
Same,  misuse  of,  108 
Scarcely,  in  sense  of  only,  37 
Scarcely,  with  negative,  37 
Seem,  in  can't  seem,  95 
Seldom  or  ever,  for  seldom  if 

ever,  109 
Sentences 

coherence  in,  44-47 

compound,  42 

coordination    or    subordina- 
tion, 51-53 

emphasis,  54-58 

euphony,  58 

ill-connected,  46 

kinds,  40 

length,  39 

logically  related,  74 

long,  42,  43 

omissions,  47-51 

parallelism,  54 

revision  of,  59 

structure  of,  39-60 

topic,  80 

unity,  41,  43 

Shall  and  will,  correct  use  of, 
34,  36 


Should,  33,  36 
Should  of,  104 
Show  up,  vulgar,  86 
Signature 

illegibility  of,  166 

in  letters,  166 

of  women,  167 

position  of,  166 

use  of  titles,  166 
Sit  or  set,  109 
Size,  as  adjective,  no 
Size  up,  vulgar,  no 
Slang,  3 

Smoothness,  how  secured,  178 
So,  frequent  use  of,  129 
Some,  for  somewhat,  no 
Somebody,  with  singular  verb, 

22 
Someone,   with   singular   verb, 

22 

Some    place,    for    somewhere, 

no 
Sort    of,     (See    "Kind    of"), 

101 

Split  infinitive,  45 
Stationery 

correct  form,   169 

for  official  letters,  171 
Stock    phrases,     disadvantages 

of,  i 

Stop,  for  stay,  no 
Style 

distinctive,  16 

in  Business  English,  17 

qualities  of,  17 


208 


INDEX 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Subj  ect 

agreement  with  verb,  20 

of  infinitive,  27 

of  is  or  was,  37 

omission  of,  50 

person  of,  35 
Subordinate  clause,  53 
Subordinate  conjunction,  50 
Such,  misuse  of,  no 
Superlative  degree,  use  of,  21 


Take,  misuse  of,  in 
Tautology,  87 
Tense 

conditional  clauses,  36 

errors  in,  32 

in  indirect  discourse,  36 

obscurity  in,  32 

of  shall  and  will,  34-36 

of    verbs    in    dependent 
clauses,  34 

of  unchangeable  facts,  33 

result  of  attraction,  33 

(See  also  names  of  tenses), 

32-36 

Than,    conjunction    for   when, 
30,  in 

and  as,  28 
That 

as  adverb,  in 

instead  of  as,  92 

(See  "Who"),  113 

The,  omission  of,  50 


Then,  as  conjunction,  52 
Therefore 

as  connective,  34,  74 

for  therefor,  in 

too  frequent  use,  124 
There  is,  there  are 

errors  in  use  of,  57 

too  frequent,  124 
These  here,  (See  "This  here"), 

112 

These    kind,    these   sort,    (See 

"Kind"),  101 
They,  indefinite,  25,  84 
Through,  for  finished,  etc.,  112 
Till  and  until,  112 
Titles,  correct  form  in  letters, 

157-159 

To  and  too,  112 
Together     with,     introductory 

phrase,  20 
Tone,  115,  122 

adapted  to  reader,  117 

faulty  example,  119 

how  secured,  114 

in  advertisement,   120 

in  letters,  120 

uniformity  of,  120 

value  of,  116 
Topic  sentence,  182 
Transitional  paragraph,  80 
Transitional  sentence,  181 
Transpire,  for  occur,  112 
Typists'  manual  of  instruction, 
150 


INDEX 


209 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


U 


Unity 

defined,  174 

how  secured,  174,  175 

in  paragraph,  66-71 

in  sentences,  41-44 

results  in  efficiency,  176 

test  of,  177 
Up,  with  verbs,  112 
Usage 

as   factor   in   Business   Eng- 
lish, 18 

denned,  15 

V 

Vagueness,  g 

defined,  g 

examples,  g 

how  avoided,  g 

how  caused,  g 
Variety,  122,  123 

how  imparted,  122 

violation  of,  123 
Verb 

agreement  with  subject,  ig 

independent  clause,  34 

object  of,  127 

omissions  of,  48 

principal,  32 
Verbosity,  87,  135 

W 

Was,  were,  after  as,  if,  etc.,  113 
Way,  with  preposition,  113 


Weakness   of   business   letters, 

4 

What,  for  that,  113 
When,  introducing  clauses,  37, 

53 
Where,  introducing  clauses  for 

that,  37,  H3 
Whether,    introducing    clauses, 

36 

Who   (whom),  correct  use  of, 

26 

Who,  which,  and  that,  as  rela- 
tives, 113 
Whoever  (whomever) 

correct  use  of,  18,  26,  27 

use  of,  114 

Whose,  as  possessive,  114 
Will,  correct  use  of,  34-36 
Willingness,  how  expressed, 

35 

With,  introducing  phrase,  20 
Without,  for  unless,  114 
Words 

avoid  unspecific,  85 

faulty  use  of,  90,  114 

superfluous,  86,  87 

test  of  good,  82,  83 

unpleasant,  86 
Would,  36 
Write  up,  (See  "Up"),  112 


"You"  attitude,  3,  10 


6-' 


I 


YB  02261 


